Biology Final Exam Spring 2026 Practice Flashcards

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering Cells, Viruses, Transport, Division, DNA, Genetics, and Evolution for the Biology Spring 2026 Final Exam.

Cell Theory

The scientific concept that the cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms and is important to all living things.

Levels of Organization (Smallest to Largest)

The correct order of biological organization: Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organ system, Organism.

Tissue

A group formed by similar cells working together to perform a specific function.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

A cell organelle that is characterized by having ribosomes attached to its surface.

Ribosomes

Organelles attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum or free-floating that function in protein synthesis.

Golgi apparatus

An organelle responsible for the modification, sorting, and packaging of proteins.

Specialized Cells

Cells that have different jobs and unique structures related to their specific functions.

Nuclear Envelope

A structure surrounding the nucleus that contains nuclear pores to regulate what enters and exits.

Capsid

The protein shell of a virus that contains its genetic material.

HIV

A virus that primarily affects the body's immune system and requires host cells for reproduction.

Cell Membrane

A partially permeable membrane present in all living cells that allows some substances through while restricting others.

Hydrophilic

The 'water-loving' property associated with the phospholipid head.

Hydrophobic

The 'water-fearing' property associated with the phospholipid tail.

Diffusion

The random movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle where cells spend most of their time growing and performing normal functions.

Cancer

A condition characterized by harmful, uncontrolled cell division resulting from cell cycle errors.

Mitosis

A process of cell division that results in the production of two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis

The stage of the cell cycle where the cytoplasm divides to form separate cells.

Meiosis

A type of cell division used for reproduction that produces sex cells with a haploid chromosome number.

Haploid

The chromosome number found in human sex cells produced through meiosis.

DNA Base-pairing Rules

The specific pairing of complementary bases where $A$ pairs with $T$ and $C$ pairs with $G$.

Nucleotide

The basic structure of DNA composed of a nitrogenous base, a phosphate group, and a deoxyribose sugar.

DNA Replication

The process by which a cell makes a copy of its DNA before cell division.

Transcription

The first main stage of protein synthesis occurring in the nucleus.

Translation

The secondary stage of protein synthesis where the genetic code is used to build a protein.

Mutation

A change in genetic material that can affect global genetic information.

Dominant Alleles

Genetics 'factors' that express their trait even if only one copy is present in the genotype.

Recessive Alleles

Alleles that only express their trait when the organism is homozygous for that specific trait.

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a specific trait.

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a specific trait.

Genotype

The description of an organism's genetic makeup using allele pairs.

Polygenic Inheritance

A pattern of inheritance where a single trait is controlled by multiple genes.

Codominance

An inheritance pattern where both alleles are fully and separately expressed.

Incomplete Dominance

An inheritance pattern where the phenotype is a blend because neither allele is completely dominant.

Pedigree

A diagram used to track inheritance patterns, identify carriers, and determine if a condition is dominant or recessive.

Evolution

A change in the heritable characteristics of a population over time, often involving common ancestry.

Natural Selection

A process where phenotypic variation affects survival and reproduction, categorized into directional, stabilizing, or disruptive selection.

Vestigial Structures

Anatomical structures that have lost most or all of their original function through evolution.

Homologous Structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

Analogous Structures

Structures that perform a similar function but do not share a common evolutionary origin.

Biogeography

The study of the geographical distribution of organisms as evidence for evolution.

Relative Age

The age of a fossil or rock layer compared to others, often determined by its position in rock layers.

Speciation

The formation of new species, typically when populations become reproductively isolated.

Sterile Hybrids

Organisms that are usually not considered their own species because they cannot successfully reproduce.

Taxon

A named group or level used by scientists to sort and classify organisms.

Phylogenetic Trees

Diagrams that show evolutionary relationships, common ancestors, and derived traits between organisms.