All Material - Test 3

All daily life vocabulary, history vocabulary, and dates pertaining to the third test/part A of the exam

VENATIO / VENATIONES

Hunting event in which venatores caught wild animals and bestiarii killed them

BESTIARIUS / BESTIARII

Gladiators who fought wild animals

LUDUS / LUDI

Gladiator school under a lanista in which gladiators lived and trained, often separated by specialty → shares name with the public games that included gladiator fights

LANISTA

Owner and head of a gladiator training school, literally ‘manager of gladiators’ → often a former gladiator

FAMILIA

The group associated with the support/management of a gladiator, including the lanista, comrades, and blood-family

GLADIUS / GLADIATOR

The term for an armed fighter in entertainment events that fought other humans (not animals) → derived from gladius, a short double-edged thrusting sword used in close combat

RUDIS

Wooden sword or rod given to victorious gladiators as a symbol of freedom → freed could work as trainers, referees, or continue fighting for honour/wealth

RUDIARIUS

A gladiator that had received a rudis but chose to remain a gladiator, fighting with pole arms → popular due to their experience

HARENA

Latin term for both sand and arena → wooden floor of arenas being covered by sand

EDITOR

Organiser of gladiatorial games

HONORIUS

Roman emperor that legally ended gladiator games in 399 and 404

AMPHITHEATRE

Open-air venue for entertainment, performances, and sports typically built on hillsides with a oval/circular design → first likely built at Pompeii ~70 B.C.

AMPHI + THEATRUM (THÉĀTRON)

Terms deriving from Ancient Greek, amphi meaning ‘on both sides’ or ‘around’ and theatrum or théātron meaning ‘place for viewing’ → combined in amphitheatre

COLOSSEUM

• Amphitheatre in the centre of Rome

• Largest ancient amphitheatre ever built

• Began under Vespasian in 72 and completed in 80 under Titus → further modifications under Domitian

TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS / CAESAR VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS

Known as Vespasian, Roman emperor from 69-70 A.D. under whom construction of the Colosseum began

TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS / TITUS CAESAR VESPASIANUS AUGUSTUS

Known as Titus, successor to Vespasian and Roman emperor from 79-81 A.D., seeing the completion of the Colosseum

TITUS FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS / CAESAR DOMITANUS AUGUSTUS

Known as Domitian, a Roman emperor from 81-96 A.D. who modified the Colosseum, adding a fourth level and finishing the interior seating → known for using rhinoceros in his games in the Colosseum, images of the rhinos appearing on his coins

FLAVIAN AMPHITHEATRE

Name given to the Colosseum due to its being constructed and modified entirely by the Flavian dynasty → Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian

COLOSSUS SOLIS

Originally called Colossus Neronis, a statue created by Nero in his villa to which Vespasian added a sun crown, then renaming it Colossus Solis for the sun god Sol → moved from the villa to nearby the Colosseum under Hadrian

VELUM

Type of Roman awning also called a velarium, meaning ‘curtain’, that stretched over the seating area in amphitheatres to protect from the sun

GAIUS MAENIUS

• Stateman and general that was consul once, dictator twice, and censor once in 318 B.C.

• As censor, provided buildings in Forum’s neighbourhood with balconies to allow spectators more room to view games within temporary arenas in the forum

• As a result, balconies were called maeniana after him

What were the tiers of seating in the Colosseum?

1. Podium

2. Maenianum primum

3. Maenianum secundum imum

4. Maenianum secundum summum

5. Maenianum summum in ligneis/porticus

PODIUM

• After special boxes, the best seating in the Colosseum

• On the same level as special boxes

• Broad platform on which people placed their own chairs

• Used by the senatorial class

MAENIANUM PRIMUM

• Tier above the podium

• Used by the non-senatorial nobles, equestrians

MAENIANUM SECUNDUM IMUM

• A division of the maenianum secundum, the tier above the maenianum primum

• Specifically the lower part of the maenianum secundum

• Used by wealthy citizens → not the elite, still ordinary citizens

MAENIANUM SECUNDUM SUMMUM

• A division of the maenianum secundum, the tier above the maenianum primum

• Specifically the upper part of the maenianum secundum

• Used by poorer citizens

MAENIANUM SECUNDUM IN LEGNEIS / PORTICUS

• Tier added above the maenianum secundum under Domitian

• Likely was standing room only, or otherwise had very steep wooden benches

• Used by the common poor, slaves, and women

PLINY THE ELDER (GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS)

Author, naturalist, scientist, military commander, procurator, and friend of Vespasian → described a Circus event put on by Pompey where 20 elephants were killed with spears, causing the audience to protest against the excessive violence

CASSIUS DIO

Historian and senator that described the Colosseum’s use of elephants, the death of over 9000 wild animals in the inaugural games, and the damage sustained after a fire in 217

MARTIAL (MARCUS VALERIUS MARTIALIS)

Roman and Celtic poet that published works in Rome → the earliest of his works were published at the opening of the Colosseum, describing his theatrical performances

CONDEMNATIO AD BESTIAS

Capital punishment in which convicts had to fight wild animals, usually equipped only with a short sword (no armour) → lack of experience and poor equipment ensured their deaths

CONDEMNATIO AD GLADIUS

Capital punishment in which convicts had to fight against a gladiator, this gladiator potentially being specially for executions → disputed about how much this execution is true

CONDEMNATIO AD LUDUM

Capital punishment in which convicts had to serve their time in a ludus, usually allowed pardon after three years

ST. AUGUSTINE

Christian theologian and philosopher from Roman Africa who described his friend Alypius’ experience with gladiatorial games

ALYPIUS

As described by St. Augustine:

• Hated violence of gladiatorial games but was dragged to one by his friends

• Protests by trying to close his eyes → his ears, left open, expose him to sounds of the crowd

• Intrigued, he opens his eyes and begins enjoying the events alongside the crowd

• Described having left with a ‘diseased mind’ → later ‘repents’ of the experience

MISSUM FAC!

A chant used in gladiator fights meaning ‘let him go’

MISSOS FAC!

A chant used in gladiator fights meaning ‘let them go’

IUGULA!

A chant used in gladiator fights literally meaning ‘slit his throat’, essentially used as ‘kill him’ → used to cheer one gladiator to take victory

HOC HABET!

A chant used in gladiator fights literally meaning ‘he’s had this’, essentially used as ‘he’s had it’ → used to describe a gladiator’s being wounded

SUMMA RUDIS

• Alongside the secunda rudis, the referee in gladiator games

• Carry wooden sticks, rudis, and potentially whips for wild animals

• Wear narrow, purple stripes

SECUNDA RUDIS

• Assistant referee to the summa rudis

• Carry wooden sticks, rudis, and potentially whips for wild animals

• Wear narrow, purple stripes

RETIARIUS

• Light gladiator

• Carry a trident, weighted net, and sometimes a short-sword

• Uniquely, they wear a metal manaca on their left arm as cover when using the trident

• Manaca extends up arm into a galerus, a sort of shield on the shoulder that prevented decapitation

• Mainly fought the murmillo, also later the secutor

THRACIAN

• Historical gladiator based on the Greeks and Thracians

• Carry a sica, a curved, single-bladed sword based on those used by the Thracian-Illyrian people

• Carry small, round shield, called a parma

• Wear helmet with crest and visor

• Wear manaca on their right arm

• Wear greaves extending up to their thighs, called ocreae

• Mainly fought the murmillo

SAMNITE

• Historical gladiator based on the defeated Samnians

• Carry typical gladiator sword

• Carry a rectangular, curved shield that is held at its centre

• Wear helmet with crest, visor, and two recognisable feathers

• Wear manaca on their right arm

• Wear a greave on their left leg that is often forwards

• Potentially evolved into the secutor

HOPLOMACHUS

• Historical gladiator based on Greek hoplites

• Carry a light thrusting lance called a hasta

• Carry either a rectangular shield or a parma variant

• Wear unique helmets, still featuring a visor

• Wear manaca on their right arm

• Wear two greaves going up to their thighs

• Mainly fought the murmillo, sometimes the Thracians as well

SECUTOR

• Heavy gladiator

• Carry a standard short-sword and oval shield

• Wear an egg-shaped helmet with a visor

• Wear manaca on their right arm

• Wear one short greave

• Mainly fought the retiarius

MURMILLO

• Heavy gladiator whose name comes from their helmets

• Carry a standard short-sword and oval shield

• Wear a helmet with a symbol of a fish, called a murmillo in Greek → no visor

• Wear either a tunic or chainmail unlike other gladiators

• Mainly fought the Thracians, but also fought the retiarius and hoplomachus

What did a ‘V’ beside the image of a gladiator signify?

It was short for vicit, meaning ‘he won’ → often indicated by a leaf (looks a bit like a heart)

What did an ‘M” beside the image of a gladiator signify?

It was short for missus est, meaning ‘he was granted a reprieve’ after being defeated → often indicated by a circle with a line (looks like the nought symbol)

CIRCUS MAXIMUS

• A chariot-racing stadium and venue located between the Aventine and Palatine

• Initially was just a track, but was repeatedly expanded

• First recorded around 329 B.C.

• Most developed by Caesar, who added permanent stone foundation and marble veneer

• Its final form measured 621m in length and 118m in width

• Was attached to the emperor’s palace

• Under Trajan it reached its peak seating of 200,000 people

• Seating was known to collapse, one such incident resulting in the death of 1000 people

CIRCUS

Large, open-air venue used mainly for chariot races, sometimes also for large venationes → derived from the Latin word for ‘circle’

CARCERES

The starting gates in a circus that were slanted and curved to compensate for differing distances between tracks

SPINA

Strip that separated most of the two linear sections of race track, the undivided sections being closed by the carceres

PULVINAR

An elevated stand in the circus with seating for the editor

METAE

Turning posts in a circus, often being three conical stone pillars with a drainage canal between serving as a dividing barrier

FACTIONES

Divisions of chariot races led by patrons, drivers and supporters belonging to one of four factions named Red, White, Blue, and Green → factions offered security to members in exchange for loyalty

BIGA

Two-horse chariot → rarer

QUADRIGA

Four-horse chariot → most common

FALX

A curved knife carried by chariot drivers to cut their reins in the case they were involved in a crash and tangled

AURIGA

Slave who drove chariots in circuses, driving with reins wrapped around their waist

FLAVIUS SCORPUS

One of the most famous chariot drivers who rode for the Green faction, taking over 2000 victories and earning more than most professional sponsors

GAIUS APPULEIUS DIOCLES

Chariot driver for the white faction known as one of the highest-paid athletes of all time, taking just under 1500 victories, placing in around 1500 more, and breaking several records

MARCUS AURELIUS POLYNICES

Son of famous charioteer Polynices, chariot driver who took just under 750 victories, winning:

• 3 purses worth 40,000 sesterces

• 26 purses worth 30,000 sesterces

• 11 purses of gold

MARCUS AURELIUS MOLLICIUS TATINUS

Son of famous charioteer Polynices, chariot driver who took 125 victories, winning two 40,000 sesterces victory prizes

CRESCENS

Chariot driver for the Blue faction from North Africa who won his first race at 13 years old after training for a year, going on to win over 1.5 million sesterces

PATER FAMILIAS

Head of a Roman family, the oldest living male citizen in the household, who could exercise autocratic authority over his family

PATRIA POTESTAS

Meaning ‘power of a father’, the power of the pater familias over his family in Roman family law → described legal power over property and power over their wife, children, other relatives, clients, freedmen, and slaves

SPONSALIA

Formal betrothal or engagement ceremony that was a legally binding arrangement negotiated between the families of the bride and groom

TUNICA MOLESTA

Tunic made with flammable material used in torture or execution

IN MANU MARITI

Type of marriage in which the wife is placed under the legal control of the husband

SINE MANU

Type of marriage in which the wife remained under the legal control of the father

DIVORTIUM

Divorce, which was largely informal but common, involving a wife taking back the dowry and leaving the husband’s house → men had the right to divorce their wives, women gained the right to divorce around the 2nd century

DOS

Refers to everything transferred to a husband after marriage to a wife, anything not made dos continuing to belong to the wife

CONTUBERNIUM

A quasi-marital relationship between two slaves or a slave and free person, not fully marriage since slaves were treated as property but still recognised as similar to marriage in law

DEDUCTIO IN DOMUM MARITI

Tradition of accepting a bride into the husbands house → bride was ritually kidnapped from her original home and led to the home of the groom, often being unhappy and fearful

REPUDIUM

Separation of partners not fully married, often due to only having completed sponsalia or created a contract without fully completing a marriage

MANCIPATIO

Legal procedure for drawing up wills, emancipating children from parents, adoption, and transferring ownership of goods, including slaves

PRONUBA

Term meaning' ‘for the bride’ that often referred to female deities thought to preside over weddings

DEXTRARUM IUNCTIO

Meaning ‘giving, joining of right hands’, an artistic method of depicting marriage through handclasps

MUSTACEUM

A wedding cake of wheat or barley wrapped in bay leaves that finalised wedding ceremonies by being broken over the bride’s head as a symbol of good fortune

UNIVIRAE

Term for women who were in their first marriage or only married once

EPITHALAMIUM

Poem written to celebrate the bride on the way to the marital chamber

Gaul made a province

51 B.C.

Senate declares martial law against Caesar

7 January 49 B.C.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon River, thereby declaring civil war

11 January 49 B.C.

Pompey defeated at Pharsalus by Caesar

48 B.C.

Caesar assassinated

15 March 44 B.C.

Brutus and Cassius defeated at Philippi by Octavian and Antony

42 B.C.

Battle of Actium

2 September 31 B.C.

Octavian hands back all power to the senate

13 January 27 B.C.

First Settlement: senate bestows title Augustus on Octavian

16 January 27 B.C.

Second Settlement: Augustus gives up consulship to get other powers

26 June 23 B.C.

Clades Variana and end of major Roman expansion

9 A.D.

Death of Augustus

14 A.D.

ALESIA

Point to which Caesar is forced to retreat after rebellion from Vercingetorix → siege of Alesia where Gallic forces are besieged by Caesar, who is also besieged by further Gallic forces; Caesar is victorious and given Triumph

VERCINGETORIX

Leader of Gallic rebellion against Caesar culminating in the Siege of Alesia and the unification of Transalpine and Cisalpine Gaul into a Roman province

RUBICON

River that separates Caesar’s territory and Rome, the crossing of which marked the point Caesar was invading (no imperium outside of province) and declaring war

IACTA ALEA EST

‘The die has been thrown’ → Caesar’s reaction to martial law being declared against him in Rome meaning that he has no other option than to declare war

DYRRHACHIUM

After Caesar’s declaration of war on Rome, rather than meeting him, Pompey retreated to Dyrrhachium and allowed Caesar to march through an empty Rome → then Caesar besieges and defeats, but Pompey escapes

PHARSALUS

After Pompey’s escape at Dyrrhachium, he reassembles army and fights at the Battle of Pharsalus, the decisive battle of the civil war that ends in Pompey’s overwhelming defeat and escape to Egypt