General knowledge culture unit

personal identity

our self on an individual and interpersonal level. it is the self-knowledge that comes from our unique attributes and characteristics.

social identity

our self in terms of our GROUP MEMBERSHIP. it is an individual based perception of what defines “us” associated with any internalized group.

social categorization

the process by which we identify which groups we belong to and which ones we do not. (in-groups and out-groups)

social identification

process by which we adopt the norms and characteristics of a group which we decide that we belong to.

social comparison and positive distinctiveness

social comparison is a means of justifying group membership and we achieve positive distinctiveness when we positively compare our in group to an out group.

social groups

a group of two or more humans who interact with each other, share similar characteristics, and have a collective sense of unity.

Social cognitive theory

details the process of observational learning and modeling and the influence of self-efficacy on the production of behavior

people are what in social cognitive theory?

They are active agents who influence and are influenced by their environment.

Observational learning

the process of learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing others and then reproducing learned behaviors to maximize rewards.

Reciprocal determinism

Details the influences of internal cognition, behavior, and environment on an individual

what are the three ways in which individuals and environments interact?

different people choose different environments, our personalities shape how we interpret and react to a situation, our personalities create situations to which we react.

self-efficacy

one’s sense of competence in a task

Stereotype

Preconceived notion about a group of people; a generalized belief

Prejudice

unjustified negative attitude towards a group and its members.

formation of stereotypes

they are formed due to illusory correlations and they associate a social group to specific behaviors that belong to that group. Leads to false associations and links between unrelated behaviors.

confirmation bias

when an illusory correlation is made, people seek out information that justifies this.

effects of stereotypes on behavior

self-fulfilling prophecy + stereotype threat

self-fulfilling prophecy

an individual’s expectations about another person or entity will eventually result in that individual/entity acting in ways that confirm these expectations. people tend to treat others differently based on their expectations and this difference in treatment leads to those individuals changing their behaviors accordingly.

stereotype threat

members of a marginalized group acknowledge that a negative stereotype towards them exists and demonstrate apprehension about confirmed these stereotypes by engaging in particular activities.

stereotype threat and stress

when students are uncertain about whether they belong in a class, they watch the environment for cues that signal if they belong or not and may be concerned about confirming a negative stereotype. This hyper-vigilance uses up cognitive resources which can therefore affect performance.

CULTURAL ORIGINS OF BEHAVIOR AND COGNITION

Culture

defined as the shared values, beliefs, language, rituals, traditions, and behaviors passed down through generations within a social group.

culture includes…

subjective culture (socially learned patterns of behavior like norms) and objective culture (artifacts, tools)

culture can be split into which two categories

surface and deep

surface culture

tangible norms that are associated with a certain culture (norms that we are aware of and can se like food, clothing, music, art)

deep culture

the attitudes and feelings that we adopt while existing as part of a culture.

The brain and culture

the brain can be seen as a cultural sponge which absorbs the cultural norms of our surrounding environments.

The western way of thinking

more analytic, paying attention to the primary object and the categories to which it belongs to using formal logic.

The asian way of thinking (holistic)

perceive objects in relation to their environments. Asians who are more collectivist and promote group harmony and a contextual understanding of situations tend to think more holistically.

Cultural groups

a collection of individuals who share a core set of beliefs, patterns of behaviors, and values. they are identified in their ways of thinking and behaving.

All cultural groups are marked by….

intragroup variation. many factors of diversity impact culture like race, age, religion, country of origin.

Asian Americans + Education

asian culture beliefs that a deficiency can be overcome by hard work. this comes from confucian beliefs about the role of effort in achievement. they belief a lack of effort is the result of under performing students.

white americans + education

attribute success to ability. when parents believe success in school depend on effort rather than ability, more likely to encourage hard work and participation in activities related to academic achievement.

cultural dimensions

general factors underlying cross-cultural differences in values and behaviors

emic approach

examining a culture from within and enables an in depth understanding of the unique culture.

etic approach

studying cultures from an outside perspective, enables cross-cultural comparison.

comparing cultures isn’t easy so what does one need to do?

identify universal phenomena present in each culture.

5 cultural dimensions

individualism v. collectivism, power distance index, masculinity v. femininity, uncertainty avoidance index, long-term v. short-term orientation, indulgence v. restraint.

individualism

belief that the needs of each person are more important than the needs of the group. high value placed on people’s time and their need for privacy/freedom.

collectivism

individual is seen as being subordinate to a social collectivity. people work for intrinsic reward.

high IDV score indicates what?

weak interpersonal connection among those who are not part of a core “family”. people tend to take less responsibility for the actions of others.

argument for individulism-collectivism

conformity + flashbulb memory

conformity

the tendency for an individual to align their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with ppl. around them.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

ENCULTURATION + ACCULTURATION

Enculturation

the process by which individuals learn the necessary and appropriate skills and norms in the context of their culture.

How does enculturation occur?

observation, formal instruction, direct personal experience.

cultural transmission

the continuity of a culture’s traditions is vital for its survival. survival relies on the culture being passed down from one generation to the next.

cultural norms

agreed upon expectations and rules by which a culture guides the behaviors of its members in any given situation. norms vary widely across cultural groups and are learning and reinforced by parents, teachers, etc.

cultural tightness

some cultures insist on strong conformity to their cultural norms.

culturally loose

other cultures tolerate a lot of deviance from the norms

factors that explain cultural tightness

ecological and historical threats (hostile neighbors, disease, etc.) socio-political institutions (more autocratic govenrments, restricted media, etc) everyday social situations (more formal interactions among people) psychological adaptations (people’s minds become attuned to the different requirements of their societies)

acculturation

process by which people change as a result of contact with other cultures in order to assimilate with a new culture. elements of the person’s original culture are replace because they naturally acquire the characteristics and attitudes of the new society.

4 strategies of cultural change

assimilation (they adjust their behaviors and attitudes to the norms of the dominant culture), integration (individuals preserve aspects of their culture while exploring relationships with other cultures), separation (individual, marginalization