Biological Bases of Behavior Vocab

Evolutionary Perspective

the study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success

Natural Selection

the process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

Nature “Genes”

are the inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities

Nurture “Environment”

the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes

Twin Studies

Examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors

Adoption Studies

Investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors

Family Studies

Analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit

Heredity

the transmission of genetic information from biological parents to offspring

Heritability

in psychology helps us figure out how much of our traits come from our genes and how much comes from our environment

Genetic Predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones

Cerebral Cortex

the outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision-making

Lobes of the Brain

The lobes of the brain refer to the four main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, is divided

Association Areas

They're parts of the brain that take information from all over the place—like what we see, hear, smell, and touch—and put it together to help us understand the world around us

Frontal Lobes

located at the front of the brain and are involved in higher-level cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

a region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning

Executive Functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

Motor Cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe, responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body

Parietal Lobes

located at the top of the brain and are primarily responsible for processing sensory information from the body, such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints

Occipital Lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes

Temporal Lobes

located on the sides of the brain and are involved in processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory formation

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and information sharing between the two hemispheres

Brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep-wake cycles

Medulla

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem, regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressure

Reticular Activating System

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attention, and consciousness

Cerebellum

located at the back of the brain, below the cerebral hemispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture

Limbic System

located beneath the cerebral cortex, is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

Reward Center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

Thalamus

a relay station in the brain that processes and relays sensory information, such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex

Hypothalamus

a small but powerful structure located below the thalamus, responsible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle

Pituitary Gland

small pea-sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the "master gland" due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body

Hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain's temporal lobes, primarily responsible for forming and consolidating new memories

Amygdala

small, almond-shaped structure located deep within the brain's temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression

Nervous system

is the body's communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

Central Nervous System

consists of the brain and spinal cord

It serves as the command center of the body, responsible for processing information, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic Nervous System

division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions; it operates automatically, without conscious control

Sympathetic Nervous System

responsible for activating the body's "fight or flight" response in times of stress or danger

Parasympathetic Nervous System

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

Somatic Nervous System

division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system

Neurons

specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body

Glial Cells

the "support cells" of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons

Motor Neurons

nerve cells that transmit signals from the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) to muscles, glands, and organs, initiating and controlling voluntary and involuntary movements

Sensory Neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory information from sensory receptors, such as those in the skin, muscles, and organs, to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)

Interneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the central nervous system, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons

Reflex Arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, automatic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought (primitive reflexes)

Neural Transmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron

It is the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response

Action Potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron

All-or-Nothing Principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength

Depolarization

phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane

Refractory Period

brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential

Resting Potential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmitting signals

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

Multiple Sclerosis “MS”

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord

Myasthenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

Glutamate

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS, playing a key role in synaptic transmission and neuronal communication; It is involved in various brain functions, including learning, memory, and neural plasticity

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

a neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; It promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety

Dopamine

neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, motivation, and movement

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress

Endorphins

neurotransmitters produced by the brain and central nervous system that act as natural pain relievers and mood enhancers

Substance P

neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that plays a fundamental role in both the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system

Hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs, where they regulate various physiological processes and behaviors

Ghrelin

hormone produced primarily by the stomach and small intestine that stimulates appetite and promotes hunger

Leptin

hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy balance and appetite; It acts on the hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure

Melatonin

hormone that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and circadian rhythms in the body

Oxytocin

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in social bonding

Norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that functions as both a hormone and a neurotransmitter in the body; It is involved in the body's "fight or flight" response, regulating arousal, attention, and stress

Plasticity

refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes

Split Brain Research

studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, which disconnects the two hemispheres of the brain

Contralateral Hemispheric Organization

the phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body

Hemispheric Specialization

explored through split brain research, refers to the concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities

Linguistic Processing

the complex cognitive processes involved in understanding and producing language

Broca’s Area

located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the frontal lobe, that is responsible for speech production and language processing

Broca’s Aphasia

language disorder caused by damage to Broca's area in the left hemisphere of the brain, often resulting from stroke or brain injury

Wernicke’s Area

region located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the temporal lobe, that is involved in language comprehension and understanding spoken and written language

Electroencephalogram “EEG”

non-invasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the brain

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging “fMRI”

neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels

Lesioning

research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals

Consciousness

The state of being aware of and able to perceive one's thoughts, feelings, sensations, and surroundings; It involves various levels, from alert wakefulness to altered states such as sleep or meditation

Circadian Rhythm

The natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours; It influences patterns of alertness, hormone release, body temperature, and other physiological processes

Jet Lag

A temporary disruption of the body's circadian rhythm due to rapid travel across multiple time zones; It can result in fatigue, sleep disturbances, and difficulty concentrating as the body adjusts to the new time zone

Shift Work

Employment schedules that require working outside of typical daytime hours, often disrupting the body's natural circadian rhythm; It can lead to sleep disturbances, fatigue, and increased risk of health problems due to the mismatch between work hours and the body's internal clock

NREM Stage 1

The first stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by drifting in and out of sleep, lasting only a few minutes

Hypnic Jerks

Brain waves slow down, muscles relax, and individuals may experience sudden muscle contractions

NREM Stage 2

The second stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by light sleep, lasting about 20 minutes

Sleep Spindles

short bursts of brain activity

K-complexes

sudden, sharp waveforms

NREM Stage 3

The deepest stage of non-rapid eye movement sleep characterized by the presence of predominantly delta waves

Restoration of Resources

The process during sleep where the body and brain replenish energy, repair tissues, and remove waste products, promoting physical and mental well-being

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis

REM Rebound

The phenomenon where the body increases the time spent in REM sleep after a period of REM deprivation

Activation-Synthesis (Dreams)

A theory proposing that dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brainstem during REM sleep, which is then interpreted and synthesized by the cerebral cortex into a narrative or story