Bio Psych Exam 4

Emotion

multi-component process:

— cognition (cognitive interpretation)

— action (physiological & behavioral expression)

— feelings (subjective awareness)

cognition

cognitive interpretation

action

physiological & behavioral expression

feelings

subjective awareness

facial feedback hypothesis

Emotions are an integrated, composite output of various changes in the body/brain

— reflect emotional experience

— induce emotion

Emotional situations

arouse the autonomic nervous system

— Each situation evokes its own special mixture of sympathetic & parasympathetic arousal

limbic system

includes the forebrain areas surrounding the thalamus

Emotions tend not

to be localized in specific parts of the cortex; a single emotion increases activity in various parts of the brain

Fear

alert to danger, prompt to avoid/escape, etc

Guilt

course-correct to salvage relationships or reputation

Anger

address unfair treatment, attack an offender, etc.

Disgust

avoid contagion, contamination

role of negative emotions

has often seemed clear

role of positive emotions

historically receievd much less research attention, but is changing

Positivity is:

• Not thoughts like “grin and bear it” or “don't worry, be happy”

• But instead the presence of positive emotion (PE)

presence of positive emotion (PE)

joy, gratitude, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe, and love.

short-term consequences of positive emotions

feels good, fosters a more open and creative mind, social connection (empathy, tenderness), physiological resilience

long-term consequences of positive emotions

• Character development (e.g., optimism, resilience)

• Health (people who express more positivity are healthier)

• Longevity (people who express more positivity live longer)

• Skill development (e.g., think of children at play)

• And the building of other resources (like social capital, mindfulness, stronger relationships, etc.)

Broaden-and-build theory of positive emotion

• Positive emotions broaden attention and creativity, whereas negative emotions narrow our focus.

• positive emotions build resources

Positive emotions broaden attention and creativity, whereas negative emotions narrow our focus.

 Joy, gratitude, serenity, interest, hope, pride, amusement, inspiration, awe, and love.

All of these open “psychological pathways”

positive emotions build resources

Physical resources (e.g. play, creativity)

Intellectual resources (e.g. exploring, learning skills/ideas)

Social resources (e.g. friendships & other social connections,

social capital, empathy & helpfulness)

Psychological resources (e.g. resilience, optimism)

Joy

sparks the urge to play and be creative.

Interest

sparks the urge to explore, to immerse ourselves, to learn.

Gratitude

sparks the urge to give back & solidify social relationships.

Hope

motivates you to tap into your own capabilities and inventiveness to turn things around. It inspires you to plan for a better future.

Activation of the frontal and temporal areas of the left hemisphere is associated with

“approach” and the Behavioral Activation System (BAS)

 Marked by low to moderate arousal

 Can characterize either happiness or anger

The Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS) is associated with

increased activity of the frontal and temporal lobe of the right hemisphere

 Increases attention and arousal

 Inhibits action; stimulates emotions such as fear and disgust

Differences in frontal cortex activity correlate with personality measurements

 People with greater activity in the left hemisphere tend to be happier, more out-going, and friendlier

 Those with greater right hemisphere activity tend to be more socially withdrawn, less satisfied with life, and prone to unpleasant emotions

 But, patterns of BAS & BIS activity have been shown to change (e.g., w/ meditation)

Those with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)

show decreased guilt

Damage to the prefrontal cortex

increases impulsiveness, blunts consideration of social norms & consequences, and impairs decision-making

Alarm reaction

the body mobilizes it’s resources to cope with a stressor

Resistance

the body adapts to the presence of the stressor

Exhaustion

the body depletes it’s resources

General Adaptation Syndrome stages

Alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion

two branches of the stress response

Branch 1: the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

Branch 2: an endocrine system response known as the HPA axis (hypothalamus-pituitary-andrenal).

Branch 1

the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

Branch 2

an endocrine system response known as the HPA axis (hypothalamus-pituitary-andrenal).

Phase 1 of general adaptation syndrome

(the “alarm reaction” we know as the “fight or flight” response) is initiated by the SNS, which also inhibits the PNS (parasympathetic nervous system)

SNS Response (+)

Pupils dilate, bronchial airways widen, breathing becomes more rapid, blood pressure increases, perspiration, mouth becomes dry, liver stimulated to release glucose

PNS Response (-)

Digestion inhibited and blood diverted from digestive tract to extremities (muscles), growth processes inhibited, tissue repair inhibited

Preganglionic axons release ______ and activate _____

acetylcholine and postganglionic cells

postganglionic cells release

norepinephrine to stimulate organ response

vagus nerve

provides feedback to brain about state of arousal.

The SNS is set in motion by

the medulla

medulla receives

input from a variety of brain regions (e.g., amygdala, locus coeruleus, dorsal raphe)

medulla stimulates release of

adrenaline & noradrenaline (a.k.a., epinephrine & norepinephrine)

adrenal gland releases

adrenaline & noradrenaline

Stress & the SNS

increases in epinephrine and norepinephrine among Ph.D. students in the days leading up to (and following) oral defense of a thesis

SNS dominates

in phase 1

HPA dominates

in phase 2

HPA axis is set in motion by

the PVN (paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus),

PVN (paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus)

receives input from many of the same areas as the SNS response (amygdala, locus coeruleus, dorsal raphe).

Psychoneuroimmunology

how experiences alter the immune system

In response to stress, the nervous system activates

the immune system

The immune system increases production of

natural killer cells, leukocytes (white blood cells) and cytokines (e.g., interleukin-1 or L-1) which trigger symptoms of illness (fever, low energy, runny nose, etc.) & can also do so as a reaction to stress

natural killer cells

attack tumors and some intruders, injecting chemicals that kill them

B cell

— attaches to a bacterium leaving bacterium’s antigen exposed

—> some become plasma cells that secrete antibodies specific to this antigen

—> some differentiate into memory cells prepared to attack the same antigen

plasma cell

secrete antibodies specific to this antigen

B memory cells

prepared to attack the same antigen

Help T cell

causes B cell to divide

Bruce McEwen ( 2000, p. 173) proposed an alternative definition that is better for most purposes:

‘events that are interpreted as threatening to an individual and which elicit physiological and behavioral responses’

DHEA — (dehydroepiandrosterone)

 Buffers negative effects of cortisol (reduces cortisol binding efficiency)

 Boosts immune functions

 Plays a neuroprotective role (against stress-induced damage)

Oxytocin

oxytocin prompts affiliative behavior in response to stress

Decreases:

—> sympathetic reactivity

—> blood pressure

—> pain sensitivity

—> corticosteroid levels

Tend and Befriend Theory

in response to stress, females often exhibit a "tend-and-befriend" response—nurturing offspring and seeking social support—rather than the traditional "fight-or-flight" response

—> driven by oxytocin

Challenge and Threat Theory

proposes that individuals evaluate stressful, motivated performance situations based on a balance of perceived demands and personal resources

Severe or prolonged depression associated w/

reduced size of the hippocampus, frontal lobe (OFC), ACC

Changes in the synapses of the ______ make it less responsive to reward

nucleus accumbens

Corticolimbic changes:

hyperactive amygdala (Drevets et al, 1992) and dACC, insula, w/ hypoactivity in dmPFC (Hariri, 2016), suggesting failure of normal executive regulation of emotion (weakened functional connectivity b/w amygdala, vmPFC & dmPFC)

Most studies don’t find a decrease in

neurotransmitter levels like serotonin

Depression, in its milder and non-disordered form, may have had “survival value” as a social-emotional hibernation that allowed humans to:

 conserve energy.

 avoid conflicts and other risks.

 let go of unattainable goals.

 assess circumstances, contemplate.

 signal to others the need for assistance

Evolved mechanisms can fail in 3 distinct ways

1. The mechanism fails to become activated when the relevant adaptive problem is confronted (e.g., confronting a dangerous snake, but failing to become afraid or evade).

2. The mechanism becomes activated in inappropriate contexts (contexts in which it was not designed to become activated, e.g., segsual attraction to genetic relatives).

3. The mechanism fails to coordinate with other mechanisms (e.g., self-assessments of mate value fail to guide the sorts of people to whom one devotes mating effort)

The mismatch of ancestral vs modern environments may

play a role in the dysregulation of various evolved psychological systems

MAOI

block the enzyme MAO, prevents it from breaking transmitters into inactive metabolites

Tricyclics

block reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine, but also block histamine receptors (drowsy), acetylcholine receptors (dry mouth & urination difficulties), and some sodium channels (heart irregularities, etc.)

BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor)

regulates differentiation of neurons during development, promotes the survival and growth of axons, dendrites, neurons throughout life.

BDNF functions to

translate physical / neural activity into synaptic plasticity.

ECT

increases BDNF levels & proliferation of new hippocampus neurons, and may alters gene expression in the frontal cortex

Ketamine

a partial glutamate agonist and enhances the BDNF receptor, thereby promoting greater synaptic plasticity

Psychedelics

(psilocybin, LSD, MDMA, DMT) are serotonin agonists (5-HT 2A) and enhance plasticity through formation of new synapses

Anxiolytics (“anxiety-reducing” drugs)

GABA agonists working at the GABA_A receptor

Common benzodiazepines

 Alprazolam (Xanax)

 Lorazepam (Ativan)

 Clonazepam (Klonopin)

 Diazepam (Valium)

Meditation

reduces anxiety, increases contentment, increased self esteem, empathy, and trust, even improves memory

Mindfulness

the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to things as they are

blood

a body fluid that carries vital substances to and from different areas of the body

constant pumping of fresh oxygenated blood to the tissues is

necessary for healthy cellular function

gas exchange

—> atmospheric oxygen gas enters the lungs and binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. blood get pumped by the heart to the tissues of the body.

—> oxygen used up in the tissues as part of cellular respiration. in the process, carbon dioxide formed

—> carbon dioxide binds to hemoglobin in the tissue and returns to the heart, and then the lungs. Carbon dioxide is exhaled by the lungs..

artieries

carry oxygenated blood and glucose from heart to brain

veins

carry deoxygenated blood, lactic acid, etc. from the brain to the heart

into brain

oxygen, carbohydrates, amino acids, fats, hormones, vitaminds

out of brain

carbon dioxide, ammonia, lactate, hormones

circulatory system

a complex network of pipes that transfer blood and and from the tissues

circle of willis

a ring of arteries at the base of the brain that supplies the brain w/ oxygenated blood

stroke is

among top five leading causes of death

stroke

a vascular (blood vessel-related) event that happens in the brain, causing neurological (Brain-related) dysfunction

stroke happens when

a blood vessel in the brain gets blocked or bursts

the brain

needs a constant supply of blood in order to function

cardiovascular disease processes

—> hypertension (high blood pressure)

—> Atherosclerosis (plaque buildup n blood vessels)

—> heart arrhythmias / atrial fibrillation

—> aneurysms (blood vessel weakness)

neurological dysfunction

—> motot/muscular weakness

—> numbness/tingling

—> difficulty speaking

—> visual dysfunction

—> fatugie or loss of consciousness

ischemic stroke

artery supplying the brain gets blocked

—> low blood flow to brain

—> ischemic necrosis (brain tissue death due to lack of oxygen)

—> neurological dysfunction

hemorrhagic stroke

artery supplying the brain ruptures

—> brain tissue hemorrhage (bleeding into the brain)

—> tissue compression/necrosis

—> neurological dysfunction