Lecture 19: Contemporary Perspectives on Personality Disorders

What is the Interpersonal Perspective?

The Interpersonal Perspective is the view that personality is fundamentally about relationships and interactions with other people. It emphasizes that most of what we call personality is expressed in interpersonal life, not in isolation.

In the Interpersonal Perspective, what is personality conceptualized as? Explain.

Personality is conceptualized as the social product of interactions with significant others. This means personality is not something that develops alone or only 'inside' the person, but develops through ongoing interactions with real or imagined others, their expectations, and the relationships that shape self-understanding over time.

Who was the father of the interpersonal perspective?

Harry Stack Sullivan is identified as the father of the interpersonal perspective.

Who was Harry Stack Sullivan, and what were his main ideas?

Harry Stack Sullivan was the theorist who founded the interpersonal perspective. His approach reacted against Freud’s idea that pathology is mainly a private inner affair. Sullivan argued that mental disorders are created and maintained through maladaptive patterns of social interaction and communication. He defined personality as 'the recurrent set of interpersonal situations which characterize a person’s life.'

The consequences of Sullivan’s approach bridge what two things? Explain.

Sullivan’s approach bridges psychology and existentialism, connecting psychological ideas about personality and mental disorder with existential ideas about identity, self-definition, and the uncertainty of who we are.

What does it mean that Sullivan’s approach bridges psychology with existentialism?

It means the self is not seen as a fixed hidden essence, but as something that is continually shaped and redefined through relationships with others. Existentialism suggests 'we exist, then define ourselves,' while interpersonalism adds that other people are essential to that self-definition. The self-concept is treated like a set of changing hypotheses, not a permanent inner core.

Who was Timothy Leary in this class content?

Timothy Leary is presented as an important figure in the origins of the interpersonal approach, particularly for his ideas about the levels of personality and the Interpersonal Circumplex.

What are Timothy Leary’s five levels of personality?

Timothy Leary’s five levels of personality are:

1. Public communication

2. Conscious description

3. Private symbolization

4. Unexpressed unconscious

5. Values

What is the first level of personality in Timothy Leary’s model: public communication?

Public communication is the first level and refers to what is observable and objective in interpersonal behavior. It is the outward social behavior that other people can directly see.

What is the second level of personality in Timothy Leary’s model: conscious description?

Conscious description is the second level and refers to what people verbally say about themselves or others. It is expressed through the spoken content of statements and self-descriptions.

What is the third level of personality in Timothy Leary’s model: private symbolization?

Private symbolization is concerned with preconscious and unconscious attributions. It is expressed through indirect fantasy material such as projective tests, artistic productions, wishes, dreams, and free associations.

What is the fourth level of personality in Timothy Leary’s model: unexpressed unconscious?

Unexpressed unconscious refers to material that is censored from consciousness and compulsively avoided across the other levels. It is noticeable because of its inflexible absence.

What is the fifth level of personality in Timothy Leary’s model: values?

Values are expressed not only in the ego ideal, but also in the standards by which people judge themselves and others. This level reflects what a person sees as important, good, ideal, or worthy.

What is Timothy Leary’s Interpersonal Circumplex?

Timothy Leary’s Interpersonal Circumplex is a circular model of personality and interpersonal style in which different personalities are arranged around a circle based on blends of key interpersonal dimensions. It shows how styles relate to one another continuously, not as isolated boxes.

What is Timothy Leary’s Interpersonal Circumplex often called?

It is often called the interpersonal circle.

How does Timothy Leary’s Interpersonal Circumplex differ from the DSM?

It differs from the DSM’s categorical representation of discrete disorders. In the circumplex, each personality style shades gently into its neighbors, rather than being treated as a sharply separate category.

What two content dimensions does Timothy Leary’s Interpersonal Circumplex cross, and what does that mean?

It crosses the dimensions of dominance and affiliation. This means each personality style can be understood as having its own blend of control/power and warmth/connection. People close together on the circle are similar, while people on opposite sides are opposites in real life.

Explain complementarity in the origins of the interpersonal approach.

Complementarity means that people’s interpersonal behaviors are designed to draw out certain kinds of responses from others. According to the slides, each interpersonal bid tries to exclude responses that feel invalidating and invite responses that confirm the way the person wants to be seen. In that way, social interaction becomes a way of pulling for validating reactions.

Explain normality and abnormality in the origins of the interpersonal approach.

In this approach, people often help create the very social reactions they expect from others. This is a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy. For normal or adaptive styles, that can work well. But in personality disorders, it can turn into a vicious circle, where the person repeatedly seeks only one kind of validating response, which then keeps the disorder going.

Disorders or styles?

The slides suggest thinking of these patterns as styles along a continuum, not just rigid categories. There are no judgments, and each style has both positive and negative aspects.

What is the Goldwater Rule?

The Goldwater Rule is the ethical principle that mental health professionals should not publicly diagnose or give a professional opinion about a public figure they have not personally evaluated and from whom they do not have consent. In this lecture context, it fits with the reminder to be careful and ethical when discussing personality styles and disorders.

How do you make a cognitive conceptualization?

According to the slides, a cognitive conceptualization is made by identifying:

1. Key conflicts

2. Beliefs

3. Strategy

4. Affect

What is Avoidant Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Avoidant Personality Disorder is presented as a pattern in which the person wants closeness and success but is strongly afraid of hurt, rejection, and failure, so they cope by withdrawing from situations where they might be judged.

What is the key conflict in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

The key conflict is between:

• the desire to be close to others and live up to one’s intellectual and vocational potential, and

• the fear of being hurt, rejected, and unsuccessful.

What is the self-view in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

The self-view is of being socially inept and incompetent in social, academic, or work situations.

What is the view of others in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

Others are viewed as potentially critical, uninterested, and demeaning.

What are the beliefs in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

The beliefs listed in the slides are:

• “I am no good”

• “I am worthless”

• “I am unlovable”

• “I cannot tolerate unpleasant feelings”

What are the threats for people with Avoidant Personality Disorder?

The main threats are:

• being discovered to be a “fraud”

• being put down

• being demeaned

• being rejected

What strategy do people with Avoidant Personality Disorder use to avoid these threats?

Their strategy is to avoid situations where they might be evaluated. They may hang back in groups, avoid attention, and avoid new responsibilities or advancement at work because they fear failure and negative reactions from others.

What is the affect in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

The main affect is dysphoria. This includes feelings of anxiety, sadness, and low self-esteem, often stemming from the fear of social evaluation and rejection.

What is dysphoria in Avoidant Personality Disorder?

In these slides, dysphoria is defined as a combination of anxiety and sadness. It is linked to the person missing out on the closeness, pleasure, and sense of mastery they want but avoid pursuing because of fear.

What is Dependent Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Dependent Personality Disorder is presented as a pattern in which a person sees themselves as helpless and tries to attach to a stronger person who can provide support, survival, and happiness.

What is the key feature in Dependent Personality Disorder?

The key feature is that people picture themselves as helpless and therefore try to attach themselves to a stronger caretaker figure.

What is the self-view of people with Dependent Personality Disorder?

They see themselves as needy, weak, helpless, and incompetent.

What is the view of others in Dependent Personality Disorder?

They tend to see others, especially a strong caretaker figure, in an idealized way as nurturing, supportive, and competent.

What beliefs are held by someone with Dependent Personality Disorder?

Their beliefs include: “I need other people—specifically, a strong person—in order to survive,” “I am completely helpless,” and “I am all alone.” They also believe their happiness depends on having a steady source of support and encouragement.

What threats do people see in Dependent Personality Disorder?

The main threats are rejection and abandonment.

What strategy do people with Dependent Personality Disorder use to avoid threats?

Their strategy is to cultivate a dependent relationship by subordinating themselves to a strong figure and trying to placate or please that person.

What is the affect in Dependent Personality Disorder?

The main affect is anxiety, especially around the possibility of losing the dependent relationship. The slides also note gratification or euphoria when dependent wishes are granted, and depression if the important figure is removed.

What is the anxiety in Dependent Personality Disorder?

The anxiety is the fear that the dependent relationship will be disrupted. It becomes stronger when the person senses strain in the relationship.

What is Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder is presented as a personality style centered on control, order, rules, and perfectionistic responsibility, with strong fear of mistakes and disorder.

What are the key features of Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

The key features are “control” and “should” thinking. The slides summarize it with the phrase “orderliness is godliness.”

What is the self-view of people with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

They see themselves as responsible for themselves and others. They believe they can only depend on themselves to make sure things get done, and they are driven by perfectionistic “shoulds.” At a deeper level, they also carry a core image of themselves as possibly inept or helpless, with fear of becoming overwhelmed.

What view of others do people with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder have?

They see others as too casual, irresponsible, self-indulgent, or incompetent. They often apply their own “shoulds” to other people too.

What beliefs do people with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder have?

Their beliefs include: “I could be overwhelmed,” “I am basically disorganized or disoriented,” and “I need order, systems, and rules in order to survive.”

What threats do people experience with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

The main threats are flaws, mistakes, disorganization, and imperfections. They also tend to catastrophize, thinking things will get out of control or not get done properly.

What strategy do people with Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder use to avoid threats?

Their strategy is to apply rules, and to evaluate and rate both their own performance and other people’s performance in order to prevent mistakes and maintain control.

What affect is shown in Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder?

They are prone to regret, disappointment, and anger toward themselves and others. They may feel anxiety or anger in anticipation of poor performance, and depression when serious failure occurs.

What is Antisocial Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Antisocial Personality Disorder is presented as a pattern that can range from conniving, manipulating, and exploiting others to direct attack and open aggression.

What is the key feature of Antisocial Personality Disorder?

The key feature is a style of relating that ranges from manipulation and exploitation to direct attack.

What is the self-view of people with Antisocial Personality Disorder?

They tend to see themselves as loners, autonomous, and strong. Some also view themselves as abused or mistreated by society, while others cast themselves in a predatory role in a dog-eat-dog world.

What view of others do people with Antisocial Personality Disorder have?

They see others as exploitative, and therefore as deserving to be exploited in return. They may also see others as weak and vulnerable, and therefore as prey.

What beliefs do people with Antisocial Personality Disorder have?

Their beliefs include: “I need to look out for myself” and “I need to be the aggressor or I will be the victim.”

What strategy do people with Antisocial Personality Disorder use?

Overt antisocial individuals may attack, rob, or defraud others openly. More subtle antisocials, like con artists, try to manipulate, exploit, or deceive others indirectly.

What affect is shown in Antisocial Personality Disorder?

The slides highlight anger, especially anger over the idea that other people possess things that the antisocial person believes they deserve.

What is Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Narcissistic Personality Disorder is presented as a style centered on self-aggrandizement, superiority, entitlement, and the need for recognition that confirms grandiosity.

What is the key feature of Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

The key feature is self-aggrandizement.

What is the self-view of people with Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

They see themselves as special and unique, almost like princes or princesses. They view themselves as superior, entitled to special treatment, and above ordinary rules.

What is the view of others in Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

They see others as inferior and often as vassals or potential admirers. They seek recognition from others to document their grandiosity and preserve their superior status.

What beliefs do people with Narcissistic Personality Disorder have?

Their beliefs include: “Since I am special, I deserve special dispensations, privileges, and prerogatives,” “I’m superior to others and they should acknowledge this,” and “I’m above the rules.” The slides also note that many have covert beliefs of being unlovable or helpless.

What strategy is used by people with Narcissistic Personality Disorder to avoid threats?

Their strategy is to pursue activities that reinforce superior status and expand their personal domain. They seek glory, wealth, position, power, and prestige, and often become highly competitive with others of similar status.

What affect is shown in Narcissistic Personality Disorder?

The main affects are anger when they do not receive the admiration or respect they believe they deserve, and depression if their strategies for maintaining superiority fail.

What is Histrionic Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Histrionic Personality Disorder is presented as a style centered on expressiveness, dramatization, romanticizing situations, and trying to captivate others’ attention.

What is the key feature of Histrionic Personality Disorder?

The key feature is expressiveness — especially the tendency to dramatize or romanticize situations and try to impress or captivate others.

What self-view do people hold in Histrionic Personality Disorder?

They see themselves as glamorous, impressive, and deserving of attention.

What view of others do people with Histrionic Personality Disorder have?

They tend to see others favorably, as long as those people provide attention, amusement, and affection. Their self-esteem depends heavily on continued appreciation from others.

What beliefs do people with Histrionic Personality Disorder have?

Their beliefs include: “I am basically unattractive” and “I need other people to admire me in order to be happy.”

What strategy do people with Histrionic Personality Disorder use to avoid threats?

Their strategy is to use dramatics and demonstrativeness to bind people to them. If this does not work, they may feel unfairly treated and try to coerce compliance through pain and anger displays.

What affect is shown in Histrionic Personality Disorder?

The affect includes gaiety and mirth when they successfully engage others, along with an underlying anxiety tied to fear of rejection.

What is Schizoid Personality Disorder?

In these slides, Schizoid Personality Disorder is presented as a style defined by isolation, detachment, and autonomy, with the person sacrificing intimacy to preserve independence.

What is the key feature of Schizoid Personality Disorder?

The key feature is isolation. The slides describe it as the embodiment of the autonomous personality, willing to sacrifice intimacy to preserve detachment and autonomy.

What self-view do people with Schizoid Personality Disorder have?

They see themselves as self-sufficient and as loners. They value mobility, independence, and solitary pursuits.

What view of others do people with Schizoid Personality Disorder hold?

They see others as intrusive and controlling.

What beliefs are held by people with Schizoid Personality Disorder?

Their beliefs include: “I am basically alone,” “Close relationships with other people are unrewarding and messy,” “I can do things better if I’m not encumbered by other people,” and “Close relationships are undesirable because they interfere with my freedom of action.”

What strategy do people with Schizoid Personality Disorder use to avoid threats?

Their strategy is to keep their distance from other people as much as possible.

What affect is had by people with Schizoid Personality Disorder?

The slides describe sadness as long as they keep their distance, and anxiety when they are forced into interpersonal encounters.