Ancient Near East Final

Rosetta Stone

inscription discovered in 1799

deciphered by Jean Francois Champollion

contained the same written text in Greek, Demotic, and Hieroglyphics

allowed scholars to decipher Egyptian writing

key to understanding Ancient Egypt

apotheosis

pharaoh or king seen as divine or god-like

Hieratic

“cursive writing” form of hieroglyphics

used by priests, scribes; common on papyrus and used among elites

a faster form of writing

abydos

important religious city in upper egypt

major burial site of early kings (umm al qa’ad was its royal cemetery)

closely associated with osiris

serekh

early royal symbol showing a king’s (pharaoh’s) name inside a palace facade with Horus above it

used before cartouches

nome

a province of Egypt (District, county)

nomarch

“governor” of province/nomes

powerful local rulers

prominent when central government was weak

upper egypt

southern egypt

upstream along nile

symbolized by the white crown

lower egypt

northern egypt

nile delta region

rich farmland

trade center

symbolized by the red crown

cataract

rocky rapids on the nile

mainly in the south/near Nubia

made navigation difficult

helped protect southern border of Egypt

demotic

a later Egyptian hieroglyphic script

used for business, daily life, administration

appears on the rosetta stone

naqada

name given to Egyptian stages before dynasties, before unification

major predynastic culture center in upper egypt

hieroglyphics

formal pictographic writing system

used in temples, tombs, monuments

combined symbols for sounds and ideas

ba and ka

parts of the soul in Egyptian belief

ka was life force that remained anchored to the tomb

ba was personality or spirit and could move after death

cartouche

oval ring enclosing a royal name

marked and protected the pharaohs name

ma’at

concept of truth, justice, order, and cosmic balance

Pharaoh’s duty to maintain it

hierakonpolis

before unification

important predynastic city in upper egypt

major center of early kingship and state formation

inundation

annual nile flood that deposited fertile soil

essential for Egyptian agriculture

book of the dead

collection of spells placed in tombs to help the dead in the afterlife

(navigate to the afterlife and within the afterlife)

included guidance for judgement

necropolis

large cemetery city for tombs

often located on desert edges West of the Nile

Memphis, saqqara, abydos

osiris

god of the dead, resurrection, and afterlife

myth says he was killed by Seth (chopped up and scattered around)

and revived through Isis (who collected his body parts reunified them)

seth

god associated with chaos, storms, desert lands, warfare

rival of osiris

horus

falcon god

linked to kingship and the living pharoah

defeated Seth in myth

Isis

goddess of magic, motherhood, and healing

wife of osiris

mother of horus

naqada I

early predynastic stage

4000-3500 BC

increasing agriculture and village development

Naqada II / Gerzean

later predynastic stage

more trade, craft specialization, elite burials, growing political power

associated with boating

Naqada III

final predynastic stage

emergence of kingship

emergence of writing

unification of egypt and the first pharoahs

centralized kingship

Umm el-Qa’ab

royal cemetery at Abydos

burial place of many early kings

early dynastic egypt

period after unification

dynasties 1-2

stronger central government

royal institutions formed; bureaucracy with scribes and record-keeping

capital: Memphis

rise of mastabas and necropoli

Narmer

king traditionally credited with unifying upper and lower egypt

3100 BC

known from NArmer Palette

old kingdom

dynasties 3-6

2686-2181 bc

age of pyramid building

and strong centralized monarchy

building of temples for Ra

saqqara

necropolis near Memphis

site of djoser’s step pyramid

pyramid texts

khufu

4th dynasty pharaoh who build great pyramid at giza

djoser

third dynasty king

ordered the building of first large stone structure in egypt (Step pyramid)

stacked mastabas

giza

famous pyramid complex near modern Cairo

site of Khufu, khafre, and menkaure pyramids

Khufu: great pyramid from Aswan granite and white limestone

Khafre: Great Sphinx too

Menkaure: smallest pyramid

pyramid text

religious spells carved inside pyramids

earliest large funerary texts

spells to help pharoahs in afterlife (field of reeds)

memphis

capital near border of upper and lower egypt

major political center

dynasty iv

peak pyramid age

included Khufu, khafre, and menkaure

pepi II

long ruled sixth dynasty king

his late reign is linked to Old Kingdom decline

very weak leadership leading into the first intermediate period

began the rise of the nomarchs and decline in pyramid building

pyramids

royal tombs expressing divine kingship and power

most famous during old kingdom

smooth sides

limestone casing (white, shiny)

maybe gold tipped

granite from Aswan

had internal chambers and vaults

built by peasants, not slaves during Nile flooding season when they couldn’t work the fields

barracks and villages around construction area where they lived seasonally

nile river and ramps used in transporting materials

mastaba

predecessor of pyramids

rectangular flat-roofed tomb structure made of mudbrick

for elites and early kings

associated with mortuary temples

imhotep

architect of djoser’s step pyramid

was a vizier, priest, advisor

later deified into god of wisdom and medicine

sneferu

founder of dynasty iv

built multiple pyramids

bent pyramid (angle change from instability)

and red pyramid (first successful true pyramid)

first intermediate period

time of political fragmentation after old kingdom collapse

2181-2055 BC

7-11 dynasties

regional rulers (nomarchs) gained power; collapse of central government

Memphis/Hierakonpolis vs Thebes

a time of competing rule and foreign influence

admonitions of ipuwer

literary text describing chaos, disorder, and suffering

often associated with memory of crisis

society was upside down from the norm

during the intermediate period

middle kingdom

dynasties 11-13

2055-1650 BC

period of reuinifcation, stability, literature

known for bureaucracy and viziers

rising middle class and artisans

expanded trade through Levant, Anatolia, Aegean

restoration of Ma’at

afterlife made available for more than elites; time of book of the dead

mentuhotep II

king who reunified egypt and started Middle Kingdom period

execration texts

curses written against enemies on pottery/figures then smashed.

used magically and polticailly

dynasty XII

strong Middle Kingdom dynasty

property, administration, military success

expansion into Nubia

strong centralized government

itj-towy

capital city founded in Middle Kingdom era by Amenemhat I

likely near Faiyum

dynasty XIII

later middle kingdom dynasty with many short reigns and weakening power

viziers had way too much power

arrival of Hyksos - “rulers of foreign land”

Amenemhat I

founder of dynasty XII

strengthened central rule

not of royal birth

moved capital from Thebes to Ij-towy

promoted Amun (amun-re)

co-regency system (with son for smooth succession)

tale of sinuhe

famous middle kingdom literary story about exile and return

expressed a fear of dying outside of Egypt and being denied an afterlife

senwosret III

powerful dynasty XII king

strong military and fortresses

expanded into Nubia for trade

reformed administration by reducing power of nomarchs and elevating viziers

second intermediate period

era of divided rule and loss of central power after middle kingdom

1650-1550 BC

foreigners rule of egypt

hyksos

hyksos/dynasty XV

hyksos AKA amorites

group from levant/Western Asia controlled the delta

introduced horses, chariots, and new military technology (composite bows)

avaris (tell el-dab’a)

capital of the Hyksos in the nile delta

apophis

major Hyksos king of dynasty XV

demon of the underworld

Nubia alliance

dynasty XVII

theban rulers in upper egypt who fought hyksos

began war to reunify egypt

kamose - last king of Dynasty XVII - if I do not rule all of egypt, I rule nothing

amorites

west semitic people known across the near east

western asia

hyksos

in Levant

new kingdom

dynasties 18-20

1550-1070 BC

Egypt’s imperial age and greatest power

reunification after the Hyksos

military expansion, empire building

international relations (Uluburun shipwreck showing extensive international trade)

ahmose

king who expelled the hyksos and founded dynasty XVIII

reunifies egypt

restored Egypt’s culture

brother of kamose

Thebes capital

expansion into the Levant

kamose

last theban king before ahmose

continued war against hyksos

dynasty xviii

early new kingdom dynasty

lots of wealth and expansion

included Hatshepsut, thutmose III, Akhenaten, tutankhamun

amenhotep I

son of amose

campaigned into nubia

expanded Egyptian reign through to the second cataract

thutmose I

after amenhotep I in 18th dynasty,

expanded further to nubia and Euphrates river

tel el-amarna/akhetaten

capital built by Akhenaten for worship of Aten

karnak

huge temple complex at Thebes dedicated mainly to Amun

built by Hatshepsut

Ugarit and byblos

eastern Mediterranean trade cities connected to egypt

important for timber and commerce

trade hubs in Levant / Coast of Syria

international trade uniting the region

kadesh on the orontes

Syrian city contested by egypt and Hittites

site of famous battle

nefertiti

queen of akhenaten

very powerful, maybe co-ruler

famous for artistic bust and amarna period prominence

foreign origin - Mitanni princess or Ay daughter?

Tutankhamun

son of Nefertiti

restored traditional religion (Amun-god of Thebes)

hatshepsut

female pharaoh of dynasty XVIII known for trade, economics

co-regent of thutmose II, then pharoah

known for trade expeditions and monument building

trade to punt, Byblos for cedar wood

built Karnak: massive temple complex

after death: thutmose II remove her cartouches from monuments, trying to erase her from history - why? to preserve his own line/succession of kings?

hittites

major Anatolian empire rivaling egypt during the late bronze age

seti I

strong military king

father of ramesses I

military campaigns to regain territory

campaign to Libya, syria, nubia

hattusha/hatti

capital and homeland of Hittite empire in anatolia

el - Amarna letters

clay tablet correspondence between egypt and other near eastern rulers

key source for diplomacy

between egypt and Canaan

request for military aid, suggesting diplomacy and alliance

Akkadian writing

valley of the kings

royal burial valley near Thebes used in new kingdom

hidden tombs instead of pyramids

protection against grave robberies

aten

solar disk deity promoted by Akhenaten over other gods

mitanni

hurrian kingdom

in syria/northern mesopotamia

sometimes ally and sometimes rival of egypt; allies by Dy 18

royal marriage : Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III

Amarna Letters

merneptah stele

victory inscription mentioning Israel

earliest known biblical reference to israel

thutmose III

great warrior king and fantastic military leader

expanded Egyptian empire into syria/levant and nubia

battle of megiddo

under Thutmose III

Canaanite city states rebel

first recorded battle - Egyptian annuls inscribed on temple Amun at Karnak

merneptah

sons of ramesses II

ruled during growing external pressures

fought Libyans and early sea peoples

hattusili III

Hittite king involved in peace treaty in kadesh

medinet habu

temple complex of ramesses III at thebes

showed battle with sea peoples

Amun (amun-re)

chief state god of new kingdom egypt

combined with sun god re

sea peoples

groups who attacked eastern mediterranean states around 1200 bc.

associated with Bronze Age collapse

raiders who attacked by ship

amenhotep III

wealthy and powerful king before akhenaten

height of new kingdom luxury

king of period of peace and wealth

ramesses II

long ruling pharaoh famous for buildings

and battle of kadesh

90 year reign

expanded Karnak and Luxor

New capital at Pi-Ramesses

Ramesseum mortuary temple

ramesses III

later king

fought sea peoples

maybe last strong new kingdom ruler

egypt weak after

Akhenaten (amenhotep IV)

religious reformer who elevated Aten and reduced power of Amun priesthood

from polytheism to henotheism

philistines

people associated with southern levant after Bronze Age collapse

often linked to sea peoples and Greece

settled in southern coast of Canaan by Ramesses III

muwatallis II

Hittite king who fought ramesses II at kadesh

battle of kadesh

kadesh on the Orontes

major battle between egypt and Hittites.

chariots

led by Ramesses II and Muwatallis II

1274 bc

often called one of earliest well documented battles

both sides won in a way or came to a draw, no clear winner

first recorded battle from both side

1st peace treaty with hatushilli III/ and Ramesses II

Egyptian rule of Palestine (late Bronze Age)

egypt controlled much of Canaan/Palestine through local vassal rulers rather than direct settlement

Egyptian officials demanded tribute and loyalty

the amarna letters show local rulers asking egypt for military help

this control weakened near the end of the Bronze Age

10 must-know pharoahs

1. Narmer - unification

2. Djoser - step pyramid

3. Khufu - great pyramid

4. Mentuhotep II - reunified Egypt

5. Ahmose - expelled Hyksos

6. Hatshepsut - female pharoah

7. Thutmose III - empire builder

8. Akhenaten - Aten religious reform

9. Ramesses II - Kadesh/monuments

10. Ramesses III - sea peoples

pre-dynastic egypt

before egypt was unified under one ruler

small farming villages

along the nile

egypt after the sea people

weak state with weak rulers

no longer a superpower

slow collapse

climate change, famine, invasion, trade network fall, earthquakes

Egyptian rule of Palestine during Late Bronze Age

egypt controlled much of Canaan/Palestine

Thutmose III had a victory at the Battle of Megiddo

Amarna Letters; reflect instability

Akhenaten caused a decline in control as he focused less on outside of Egypt

Egypt competed with Mitanni, Hittites, and Sea People over control of Canaan

Decline in Egyptian power resulted in the Philistines settling in the area

Eventual loss of trade network

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Egypt controlled Canaan through indirect rule (local rulers paid tribute),

They maintained control via military presence and diplomacy (Amarna Letters).

Control weakened after Akhenaten and during later instability.