paper 3 global politics edexcel

What is sovereignty?

global politics is made up of sovereign states with nothing about the states so therefore politics is a global anarchy

principle of absolute and unlimited power and authority over its popualtion and territory

internal sovereignty

supreme decision making and enforcement with regards to everybody everywhere in a particular territory

based on the principles that the state exercises the sovereignty and has de jure and de facto authority

de jure- considered to be the legal right to execute the authority (legal may imply legitimacy and therefore consent)

west phalia

de facto + de jure internal sovereignty

de facto- reality of the situation, can the state actually exercise internal sovereignty. usually implies that:

1) The state has sufficient coercive power to ensure obedience through a monopoly of force i.e. police and military

2) citizens are in the habit of obeying the authorities

furthermore a state may have de jure authority but not de facto e.g. somali state is considered to have legal and democratic legitimacy but competing groups prevent it having de facto internal sovereignty

states may have de facto sovereignty but not de jure e.g. burmese generals that have de facto control of burma, however no legal consensual, therefore not de jure

states may not have both e,g, uk government has consent and legitimacy through democratic institutions, also has no de fato through monopoly of force and a general expectation of obedience to the law

uk has weak internal sovereignty: breaking laws, gang control, aras out of control from crime, riots show authority losing control, illegal immigration, the troubles in NI

external sovreignty

absence of a supreme international authority and therefore the independence of sovereign states is the basis of external

a state is externally sovereign if other states recognise they have no right to interfere in domestic affairs. state has the rights to conduct its foreign policy as fit, within bonds of international law

its usually accepted that the international system has been based on sovereignty since west phalia

de jure and de facto: all states are recos used under international law as having external sovereignty (de jure) may be issues to present this case: lack of power, global issues, globalisation, interventions

states recognised by others and by the UNSC give them de jure external sovereignty, nothing is above the state - no outside authority can intervene in the domestic affairs in the state - each state has freedom of foreign and domestic policies within frameworks of international law. invasions break it down

de facto sovereignty is based on states being more powerful, able to deter other states, strong military power

What is a nation?

Self-identifying community that doesn't necessarily have sovereignty, Not necessarily recognised by the international community. Not necessarily possessing a state E.g. the Kurds. Defined territory is not needed. Nations can live in more than one state

What is a state?

Political entity with sovereignty, Recognised by the international community, Could contain more than one nation or community E.g. the U.K. Defined territory is needed, States cannot cross the boundaries into other states

What is a nation-state?

The nation state is the prime political entity of the modern era. At its most basic a nation state is a nation with its own state, but this can be further developed. A nation state is: a state that represents the political wishes of a nation, and thus gains authority and legitimacy as a self-governing state, a state that is based on the principle of self-determination. Although there are problems with both the identification of nations and the recognition of states, the nation state isnow the dominant model. The UN recognises 193 states in the world, which are best described as nation states.

other actors on the international stage

• IGOS: collection of states, forming an organisation involving cooperation. intergovernmental have no impact on sovereignty with abilities to opt in opt out like the WTO, IMF, WB, G7, G20. supranational have an impact on external sovereignty as they need a qualified majority e.g. EU law is above the law

• NGOs: international pressure groups liek charities or churches WWF, greenpeace, amnesty international

• multinational corporatiosn/ TNCs: businesses opertaing globally, oil companies, tech companies, finance companies

• ethnic national movements: groups with a shared identity like devolution or succession e.f. south sudan decolonisation, scotland, catalonia, kurds

• terrorist organisations: terror/ violence insighted with a political purpose - ethnic national, global ideological

types of globalisation

• political: participation of non state actors in decisions affecting the nation state

• economic: world becoming more interdependent through principles of free trade, TNCs

• cultural: people anywhere participate in a more homogenised culture

Name 5 factors that drive globalisation

People, Countries, Culture, Technology, Institutions, Economics, Politics

Name three impacts of globalisation on the state system

Widening and deepening interconnectedness and interdependence, challenge to state control over citizens, The development of international law, humanitarian intervention

decreased sovereignty which has spread into other non state actors

sovereignty has shifted to TNCs as countries have to appeal to TNCs through policies in order to secure investments, lowering taxes, pro business

sovereignty shifted up to IGOs: cooperate with other states decisions made by regional decision for other states

sovereignty shifted up to global issues: climate change, nuclear weapons

sovereignty has shifted downwards to devolution and further down to succession

What do hyperglobalisers believe?

Hyperglobalisers see the inevitability of globalisation as a consequence of advances in technology, and feel that humankind is entering a new age. There is no going back from growing globalisation; the world can only become more interconnected and interdependent. The borderless world will become a reality as states become irrelevant. Theorists differ on whether hyperglobalisation will be a good or a bad thing.

What do globalisation sceptics believe?

Sceptics see much of globalisation as a myth and argue that the so-called integrated global economy does not exist. In reality, regional, national and local economies are more significant. Sceptics also argue that international trade and capital flows are not new phenomena.

What do transformationalists believe?

Transformationalists tread a middle path between hyperglobalisers and sceptics. Yes, significant changes have occurred due to globalisation but they have not fundamentally changed the basic international system. National governments are changing, perhaps becoming less important. Interconnectedness has increased in terms of breadth, intensity and speed.

What do realists believe?

two essential concepts:

neo realists: state is paramount and external state sovereignty is crucial, global anarchy- security and responsibility of the state and assume others might be irrational hobbesian flawed individuals and therefore a rational response would be to acquire hard power (economic and military)

classical realists: flawed human nature through psychological (insecurity), intellectual, moral, hobbesian. humans run states and therefore run the states insecure and immoral and therefore acquire hard power and everyone will gain hard power as a from of deterrence and used it offensively (acquire resources, preemption by preventing future loss of power)

both assumptions lead to the acquisition of hard power increasing from insecurity

→ security dilemma/ arms race: insecurity increased as everyone has hard power

→ relative power not absolute power: in comparison to other countries

→ global politics is a zero sum game: the losses are equal to the gains: only one winner any relative gain leads to someone making a relative loss

mercantile approach: relative gains, protectionism/ tariffs

anarchal society and society of states theory

The Anarchical Society and Society of States theory, developed by Hedley Bull, is a central concept for that proposes that while the international system is anarchic (no global government), it is not chaotic, because states form a "society" based on shared rules, norms, and institutions

acts as a bridge between liberalism and realism

Bull argued that order is maintained through five key institutions:

• Sovereignty: Mutual recognition of authority over territory.

• Diplomacy: Regularized communication between states.

• International Law: Binding rules (treaties) that states follow.

• Balance of Power: Preventing a single state from dominating the system.

• Regulated War: Rules governing when and how war can be waged.

e.g. The Paris Agreement (2015): Despite anarchic self-interest, almost all states cooperated to address climate change because shared risks necessitated it. the un charter

realist ways to prevent conflicts

→ unipolar actors: peace is actor can do what they please, doesn’t need to bother invading people as not insecure, creates an exploitative peace

→ bipolar actors: 2 superpowers where they may attack each other for power, realists see no point in attacking each other as they would lose more than they would gain because they are equal as powerful as each other like in the cold war

What do liberals believe?

Liberals have a positive view of globalisation and its ability to bring trade, prosperity, peace, democracy, political freedoms and human rights. It is a win‑win. Liberals are also glad to see a decline in nation states and an increase in international co‑operation.

rational human nature: enlightened self interest leading to cooperation, locke’s rational self interested

world order is not state dominated as there are multiple actors matter: TNCs, IGOs, NGOs

these factors lead to a high degree of interdependence leading to globalisation through political, economic and cultural which leads to an international law

economic→ free market/ TNCs/ trade

cobweb theory- everything we do relies on eachother

kantian triangle

peace relies on:

institutions (IGOs): political global governance as a forum for solving problems together and builds relations therefore peace

economic interdependence: economic liberalism free market increases trade and removes protectionism, therefore increasing interdependence no ones interest to go to war, global economy increasing standard of living, therefore absolute poverty goes down and therefore a reduction in likelihood of war

democracy: decrease the likelihood of conflict, 2 autocracy increase the chance of conflict, 1 autocrat vs 1 democrat increases chances, 2 democrats low chance (golden arches theory) people don’t disrupt peace for war

francis fukuyama

• the end of history end of cold war and development of communism (USSR) defeated by the democratic west (liberal democracy which is liberalism, democracy and capitalism )

• reached the end as liberal democracy has won so no further change to take place therefore end of history

→ marx end of history when communism is everywhere as capitalism eventually leads to class consciousness → dictatorship of the proletariat → socialism

• however fukuyama 1991 end of cold war → triumph of liberals through democracy, economic liberalism, and political liberalism which led to the decentralisation of power

• there was no challenge to liberalism so therefore end of history and a spread of democracy worldwide

samuel huntington

• clash of civilisations

• end of secular ideologies, rise of non secular ideologies

• post-Cold War conflicts are driven by cultural, religious, and civilizational identities rather than ideology or economics. He predicted major global conflicts along "fault lines" between seven or eight major civilizations—primarily the West, Islamic, and Sinic (Chinese) civilizations

• identified: western, orthodox, islamic, african, latin, sikh, hingu, buddhist, japanese. creates a divide of values

global governance

the system of institutions, rules, norms and procedures that enable international cooperation on issues that cross national borders

What are the main 6 UN bodies?

The General Assembly, The Security Council, The Economic and Social Council, The International Court of Justice (|CJ), The Secretariat, The Trusteeship Council

political global governance: UN

The UN is a unique global organisation, as every state in the world is a member. its a complex organisation established in san francisco conference in 1945. aims from its founding charter:

• safeguard peace and security in order to save generations from war

• reaffirm faith in foundational human rights

• uphold respect for international law

• promote social progress and better standards of life

roles of the UN

• climate change: make majority of states agree on impact and existence, convention on climate change (1992 UN earth summit in rio), encourage collective action and international agreement to limit emissions e.g. copenhagen summit (2009), paris summit (2015), glasgow summit (2021), kyoto protocol

• nuclear weapons and proliferation: unifying ye spread, theory of non proliferation of nukes (1968). 4 members have not signed e.g. UNGA has a disarmament commission, UN secretariat

• peace and security: more active after the cold war ended in 1991, before this usa and soviet union gridlock made decisions hard. 1990s saw an increase in un operated military intervention e.g. somalia (1992), rwanda (1994), bosnia (1995), gaza (2023)

• reducing poverty: reduce global poverty. millenium development goals (UN summit 2002). increase in focus and scope for organisational development efforts e.g. UN confirmed by reshaping MDGs into sustainable development goals

Strengths of the UN

• it represents the states of the world as equals, irrespective of their power,size, wealth, dominant religion, culture or system of government.

• forum for world coopertaion and finding solutions

• worldwide communciation, common for members

• shows interconnectedness and interdependence in modern world

Weaknesses of the UN

• 193 sovereign states with competing national interests and outlooks will sometimes disagree.

• The UN does not take sovereignty away from states, so there is no compulsion.

• it does not do enough

• it is undemocratic or it gives unsavoury governments an equal platform with the most liberal

• it gives small countries too much say or it is dominated by powerful countries e.g at the 2025 GA trump spoke for an hour longer than the allocated 15 minutes

• The UN is also notoriously difficult to reform, and has been slow to react to humanitarian disasters.

UNGA

• uns parliament, every member state can participate in debates and are represented equally. annual meetings are held in NYC. a;

• has 193 members

• secretar general

• peacekeeping force allows leaders to address un and vote on major issues (2012 vote on palestine)

• economic and social council

• international criminal court

• international court of justice

• UN organs: development program, environmental programme, high comsense for refugees,

UN secretariat

UNs civil service or bureaucracy, led by the UN secretariat, general staffed by un officials across the world, included branches in UNDP, OCHA

UNSC

UNs executive comittee, responsible for peace and security. anf for passing binding resolutions under chapter 6/7 of the UN chapter five department members have veto powers, blocked proposed resolutions further to non permanent members chosen by regional leaders

it can:

• issues binding resolutions in international law, which all UN members must follow

• issues economic sanctions and call on UN members to adapt them

• will issue humanitarian intervention: earth-quakes, natural disasters

• send military observation missions

• authorise military actions : full scale invasions

• carry out peacekeeping missions (more peace if democracy is in place)

decision making: two conditions to pass resolutions, is nine affirmative voted from the 15 members, no vetos from the P5 (russia have sued 117, USA 82 vetos)

what does it focus on? conflict resolution, non-proliferation. peace-making and peacekeeping

but: no standing army

UNSC evaluation- Is it effective in resolving conflict

yes:

• un peacekeeping operations can be successful if the UNSC agrees to wholeheartedly support them

• need to be well resourced, effective mandate, accommodate operations and support of local population

• the Kuwait liberation from iraqi forces established safe havens in iraq to stop hadam hussain launching attacks upon iraqi kurds

• un resolution 1973 on 2011 mandate of a no fly zone in libya to protect civilians

• most effective in resolving conflict in interest of its members

no:

• P5 members determined by realists self interest: genocide in rwanda in 1994 the UNSC was unwilling to intervene the UN was unprepared to commit a military response since the death of ISIS

• since the outbreak of syrian civil war in 2011, as a close ally of president Assad. russia used its veto to oppose military intervention within syria

• even when the UNSC agrees it doesn’t have its own military force so requesting military from member states can take a longer time

• military action often fails to achieve much success, as it is under-resourced as it does not have an efficient mandate to intake

• geo strategic interest of russia and china, in conflict with usa, uk and france, more difficult to come to agreement: 2013 unsc demanded syra abandon its unethical weapon programme, the unsc couldn’t agree on whether this occurred

factors for success in peacekeeping missions

• genuine commitment to political processes from all working towards peace

• clear, credible, achievable mandates, matching personal logistical and financial resources

• unity of purposes within UNSC, active support to UN operations in the field

• host country commitments to unhindered un operations and freedom of movement

• supportive engagement from neighbouring countries and regional actors

• integrated UN approach. good communication and accordance with other actors

• upmost sensitivity towards locals, highest standard of professionalism and good chances

UNSC successes/ pros

→ Iraq: 1990 iraqi invasion of kuwait resulting in a 7 month iraqi military occupation, many UN members felt this was an exploitation of the people of kuwait and their HR, the UNSC demanded complete withdrawal and passed a resolution which empowered states to use all necessary eand to force iraq out of kuwait after a deadline, legal authorisation for the gulf war. after less than 4 days kuwait was liberated and majority iraqi forced withdrawn and bush declared a cease-fire which ended the conflict

→ Preventing Major War: The core achievement is maintaining a 80-year period without a third world war, including acting as a forum for de-escalation during crises.

→ Namibia Transition (UNTAG): Supervised a peaceful transition to independence in 1990.

→ El Salvador Civil War (ONUSAL): Successfully facilitated the end of a long civil war, including disarmament.

→ veto: reflects reality (uk, france and not major powers), no case for vetoes and demands consensus (legitimacy, holds high power), still allows for action (UNGA can give countries national sanctions)

UNSC reforms

• add new permanent members w/ vetoes

• add new members without a veto: with more vetoes nothing would get done

• remove vetos from some members

• have no move or long lasting non permanent members

• no permanent members

UNSC failures/ cons

→ israel/ palestine: 1948 addressed, calling for cease fire and dispatched military observers and deployed un peacekeeping forces, and on numerous occasions expressed concerns. proposed terminating mandate and partitioning palestine into two states 1947, but israel’s dynamic with american allies with USA spending billions to fund military endeavors

→ somalia: ordered ceasefire which was ignored, 1992 UNSC endorsed sending 3000 troops but majority never sent, others shot at, aid ships attacked and thousands of refugees starving to death each day. 1993 general aidid demanded withdrawal of peacekeepers especially because UNSC didn’t obtain consent. 1993 aideeds forces shot down 2 helicopters which led to the death of 18 USA soldiers and hundreds of somali which changed opinion of president clinton leading to withdrawal. ending missions in 1995 and the population continued to suffer

→ rwanda: 1994 plane carrying habyarimana and president of burundi was shot down causing the collapse of the unstable peace of rwanda and genocide, UNSC established a assistance mission with aims of ending the rwandan civil war which lasted 3 years but unable to aid peace. 40 countries deployed troops paving the way for a transitional government but war broke out. by 1994 the UNSC threatened to terminate UNAMIRs mandate if it did not make progress, peace talks failed, UNAIMR II failed again

→Iraq: 2003 claims of iraq possessing weapons of mass destruction, UN attempted diplomatic negotiations but usa said they failed to cooperate with the un led to failure of negotiations and conflict, later invasion of iraq took place which suggested that the un acted too late and too softly the consequences of this inaction was that when the un pulled out their inspectors from iraq invasion took place. no evidence that weapons of mass destruction were found

→ syria: 2011 leader faced a prominent challenge to his rule due to outbreaks of peaceful anti-government protests beginning in syria inspired by a series of pro democracy in arab spring, increased lethal force against protestors. syria utilized chemical weapons on peaceful protestors HR watch reported 85 cases of chemical weapon attacks. investigation into HR violations and arab league attempted by a1 negotiation, russia and china vetoed a UN intervention. 2014 UNSC called for urgent increase in aid and immediate cease-fire but killings increased

→ crimea/ ukraine: 2014 russia invaded and annexed the crimean peninsula from ukraine, evenes in kyiv outspared pro russian demonstrations against the new ukrainian government, putin ‘we must start working on returning crimea to russia’, creating more migration into other countries putting pressure on the eu and nato, nothing happened as russia vetoed all UNSC resolutions, leading to ukraine war still going on 15 thousand killed at least

→ no standing army, cant legally enforce sanctions

→ veto: shows power and prioritizes the p5, prevents action, leads too ‘free lancing’ countries operating outside it (Iraq 2003, usa), is ‘too political’ countries can influence each others votes

should the UNSC be reformed

yes:

• france and uk are no longer significant powers: replaced or supplemented

• UNSCs composition reflects a view that the majority powers in global politics haven’t changed since 1945 therefore does not reflect current geopolitics, relatively emerged powers such as brazil, germany, india and japan

• more members without vetoes could be a compromise: allows for greater diversity, without showing too much power. permanent members have to make efforts to persuade non-permanent

• UNSC was already successfully reformed in 1965 where number of non permanent members increased from 6 to 10 with africa and asia getting 5 seats, 2 for latin america, 1 eastern europe, 2 for western europe → better balance of power

no:

• impossible for non members to agree on new permanent members, veto, reforms would be doomed to fail

• more states having vetoes increases the likelihoods of resolutions being vetoed and therefore UNSC unable to act (unsc is often in stalemate)

• abolishing veto or restricting power if major powers could lead to many major powers withdrawing as it no longer serves a purpose for them

• to increase UNSC members- amend the un charter - required 2/3 of the UNGA (193 members)

• developing countries could then call the shots, and wouldn’t know how they would behave

UN economic and social council

responsible for economic security, development and HR, 54 member states elected by the UNGA for 3 year terms.

international court of justice

judgements principally on territorial disputes between states, not human rights which is the ICC,

what is NATO?

formed in 1949, it is committing to democratic, individual liberty and rule of law, collective defence

started vote using a consensus

no nato amy

baron ismay- nato’s purpose is ‘keep russians out, americans in and germans down’

it was formed to ensure peace after the cold war, reinforce peace and offered more peace but also instability, deter expansion of ussr, securit through partnership and cooperation

NATOs role

nato’s new role is the war on terror, cyber security and russia

it was formed to provide collective security against the threat of military action in europe from the secret bloc promoting deeper political integration and stability in europe

its early role in the end of ww2 was military security in europe began with western union (1945)

warsaw pact (1955): collective security on the other side of ideological divide from NATO in the cold war, signed by 7 countries under soviet, nato and warsaw pact never engaged in military action, but power balance was the backup to cold war

end of cold war: extentistential for nato: still called to fighting militant motivation in europe, promoting democracy and political integration, ex communists states saw NATO membership as key to eu democracy and stability in their countries

involvement beyond europe: 9/11 triggered article 5 providing a huge reaction from us and allies, opening ending freedom us led invasion of afghanistan in 2001 to take control of the taliban regime

NATO called to take control of the international security assistance force aims to provide security and stability

UNGA

made up of all 193 un members and 2 permanent observer states with many roles:

• makes declarations based on a majority of its members which although not binding in members, do have a certain morale force e.g. UNDHR

• creates conventions which are binding e.g. conventions on alliance rights and trafficking endangered species

• push codification of international law through IL commission

• parliament in the sense that it allows vviews to be aired (forum for debate) specially important to global ‘south states’ given their concerns about neo colonialism

• all decisions are made on the basis of sovereignty equality of states with a 2/3 majority

pros: equality, debate, networking, morale authority

cons: time consuming, rarity, conflicting interests, lack of power, show-boating, not binding on all members (israel 2024 to end its invasion, UNGA 2010 nuke free zone), lack of power as it has no standing army (rights are not codified in countries), little impact on issues (UNSC overpowers UNGA decisions, more impactful for global ‘south’ states)

ICJ

• UNs primary judicial branch established by the un charter in 1946, seen as the most important court in international relations

• either the UN charter it states that ‘disputes should be settled in a peaceful way’ via the acceptance of international law. it extents to facilitate the peaceful settling of disputes

• consists of 15 judges elected by UNGA snf UNSC on a staggered basis to ensure consistency ( 9 year terms, all from different countries)

• role: settle international disputes, produce opinions on questions of international law, may use as an arbiter (dealt with 201 cases since start)

• however, a dispute is only enforced to the ICJ if both powers agree to it (america and greenland, britain and argentina about falklands), decisions made are not binding with no physical force to back up its judgements, seen as a western instrument by some global south states

• but, icj is the most important development in global governance

UNSC vs NATO

1. purpose and nature: UNSC is a global body for international peace and security and is a binding resolution, NATO is a regional military alliance with collective defence (article 5)

2. membership and power: UNSC has a p5 veto and structural gridlock with 10 rotating members with less influence, NATO is a consensus based in practice is led - 32 original, 12 original

3. instruments: UNSC peacekeeping sanctions and authorisation for used if force under international law (no standing army), NATO has an integrated military command rapid reaction forces with cyber defence and troops supplied by members assets like satellites intelligence and nuclear defence belongs to usa

4. strengths: UNSC has moral authority and universal legitimacy with sanctions, NATO has real military enforcement and strong deterrence

5. weaknesses: UNSC has veto paralysis, slow, under rescued peacekeeping. NATO over reliance on allies, western centric, russia and china, long running burden, disputes between usa and other members (internal tensions)

6. key comparisons: legitimacy, capability, global vs regional, collective security vs defence

UN economic and social council

• bringing up world economies after ww1/2 as rises communism, more trade, tariffs and depression so countries had to recover after 1945

• goals: eradicate extreme hunger and poverty, achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality, reduce child mortality, improve maternal health, combat HIV/AIDs, ensure environmental sustainability, develop a global partnership for development

• types of work: research and information exchange, promote agreement and regulatory and regimes promote technical assistance where needed, direct projects to adherence to UNs goals

• sustainable long term development backed by large budget (UNDP has a budget of $5billion), less successful in delivering emergency and or humanitarian relief as opposed to long term effects, conflict zones not as straightforward (syria- restricted by heavy fighting and blocked by armed groups, haiti- response to 2010 earthquake became the poorest country, failed to adequately target aid

• strengths: more representation, technical expertise. social successes (number of people in absolute poverty, HIV infections, access to clean drinking water), cultural preservation, international cooperation

• weaknesses: complexity, lack of formal powers, slow responses to crises, relationship with GA, conflicting geographic and demographic inequality

UNECOSOC agencies

1. educational, scientific and cultural organisation:

protecting and preserving sites through convention, protection of the world cultural and natural heritage. addresses emergence of social and ethical challenges and common values between nations

2. world bank: focused on global south and developing nations with aims to eradicate poverty (1990-2004 extreme poverty from 1/3 to a 1/5), achieve universal primary education (80% in 1991 and 88% in 2005), promote gender equality

3. IMF: achieve sustainable growth and prospects for its 190 states, supports economic policies that promote financial stability and monetary cooperation, which are essential to increase productivity, job creation and economic well being (11 member countries that aren’t sovereign)

4. Food and agriculture organisation: leading international efforts to defeat global hunger, attain food security for all, ensuring regular access to enough high quality foods and lead active lives

5. WHO: state becomes a member of WHO by ratifying the treaty. responsible for promoting leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence- based policy making, technical support for countries and health trends. international classification of diseases, intervene crises, established international health regulations

6. UN international development organisation: promote global development, sustainability and gender equality in economies of developing nations, bangladesh getting arsenic out of the water supply, columbia disposal of medical waste

7. international and aviation organisation: coordinates principles and techniques of international air navigation, fosters the planning and development of international air transport to ensure safe and orderly growth

8. international maritime organisation: contracting and reducing marine and atmospheric pollution by ships. ensuring ship routes don’t govern areas of seas where wales live

What is NATO's Article 5?

signatories agree that an attack on one of them would be considered an attack on all of them, and that they should consider armed forces in response.

Name two strengths of NATO

Countries bound by values of freedom, democracy, human rights and market economies. Achieved its purpose of deterring Russian aggression against member states. Developed with the times and found new roles to serve the interests of members. Spends around 70% of the world's total military expenditure. Proven capabilities in military action. Technologically advanced military alliance.

Name two weaknesses of NATO

Questionable whether states would actually come to the aid of an attacked state. All states have different national interests. Not all EU member states are members of NATO. Requires unanimity for decisions to be made. Over-reliant on the military power of the US. Dominated by the US. Not all countries spend the guideline 2% of GDP on the military

aims of economic global governance

1. reduce poverty

2. reducing exploitation of workers/ countries

3. increased economic growth

4. environmental protection → sustainability

5. increasing trade, decreasing protectionism

measuring development + poverty

• GDP per capita

• HDI

• welfare index

poverty: absolute poverty is not affording the basic standard of living ($2.15 a day), relative poverty is poverty in compared to others, 60% below median national income

globally: absolute poverty falling (more access to basic needs), poorer countries are narrowing the gap, in countries relative gap is widening (rich getting richer, poor staying the same )

What does the IMF do?

foster global monetary co-operation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, reduce poverty around the world

1. only significant non members: cuba, north korea, taiwan

2. all members pay into the fund: determined by size and significance of each member saye

3. roles: monitoring, technical assistance, lending, global financial stability (global financial crisis, covid, russia)

4. decision making: basis of simple majority, powers determined by their contributions (USA contributes 16%, 85% needed for simple majority)

5. use of funds: lending to states for economy stabilisation in exchange implementations of SAPs, financial crisis for stimulating world economy

evaluation of the IMF - not including SAPs

pros:

It seems to be effective.

It was created to promote global economic stability, and was arguably successful in doing so, especially over the immediate post-war period. it will lend to countries that can find no other source of finance.

As such it acts as a bulwark against economic disasters that may spill over and affect other economies in the world. it has adapted to the changing international context.

cons:

reinforces structuralism: IMF depends on money funded, USA have a veto, western powers dominate

What does the World Bank do?

The World Bank's purpose is essentially redistributive: to reduce global poverty and promote development amongst the poorest nations

The World Bank is also a source of expertise on economic and social development.

it has no significant non members

roles: lending and advice to low and middle income countries for specific purposes of development

decision making: voting power and voting is weighted based on shareholding. US, japan, china, germany, france and yk hold the largest shares, with significant us influence (16.45% vote share with effective veto power over key decisions)

funds from member states, decisions on borrowing from international financial markets: mostly borrows money itself and lends it to poorer countries

e.g. instructive development: roads, railways and power generation, such as the chattogram water supply improvement project in bangladesh 2024

population sector development program in bangladesh

$745 million in 2024 fro mexico and jamaica

world bank evaluation

strengths:

Redistributive role is relatively successful,

Willing to adapt

weaknesses:

The US has too much influence it encourages poor countries to produce cash crops like cocoa and coffee, making them dependent on exports, Good governance isn't a requirement on its loans, Encourages unsustainable development, Spends too little on development

What is Dependency Theory?

Dependency theory starts from the notion that resources flow from the 'periphery' of poor and underdeveloped states to a 'core' of wealthy countries, which leads to the accumulation of wealth by the rich states at the expense of the poor states.

What is classical economic development theory?

claims that poverty is a lack of income or resources, which can be measured by comparing countries' GDP per capita (wealth per head).

Economic development can be stimulated by Adam Smith's 'invisible hand' of the market, ensuring that all will ultimately benefit.

Countries should free markets, privatise state-owned industries and focus their economies on producing products in which they have a comparative advantage.

economic liberalism (free markets, free trade, economic globalisation, competition, low taxes low gov regulations, protecting privatisation)

economic liberalisation (increased production of goods and services) lead to economic growth → decreasing absolute poverty → increasing standard of living

every economy should aim to grow, which grows through liberal policies, costs would come down (competition, incentives), self interested rationalist

any countries with these policies will develop (washington consensus)

world systems theory

It is an approach to world history and social change that suggests there is a world economy. system that has developed as a result of the expansion of capitalism since the 17th century, in which some countries benefit while others are exploited. Division of the world into core, semi-peripheral and peripheral areas.

What is structural development theory?

poverty is the product of global inequality perpetuated by transnational corporations (TNCs) and the conditions attached to development aid by donor countries and organisations.

there is a global north: non liberal democracies (core states) with strong intellectual property and high paid sercice jobs (maintained through IGOs) and global south: everyone else, periphery (neo colonialism) for resources and labours → lack de facto sovereignty, de jure sovereignty

leads to global south cant develop in the same way

In order to end structural inequality in the international system poorer states should intervene substantially in the domestic economy to promote industrialisation and reduce the reliance on the export of primary goods, such as agricultural and mining products. restructure the structural power

Developing states also should impose restrictive trade policies to protect domestic industries from external competition and promote trade with other developing countries.

TNCs → have to accept intellectual property for trade → head quarters in USA → production in emerging countries to keep cheap production → exploit global south for labour and materials → global north use dominance of IGOs to maintain advantages → small businesses bought or out competed

What is neo-classical development theory?

Became influential towards the end of the 1970s, inspired by the economic policies of Margaret Thatcher in the UK and Ronald Reagan in the USA. At the same time, the World Bank shifted from its Basic Needs approach to a neo-liberal approach in 1980. Neo‑classical development theory essentially is classical economic development theory. This approach inspired the Structural Adjustment Programmes imposed on recipients of loans in the 1980s.

bretton woods system

• WW2 and great depressuon no return to 1930s peotcetionsism and eocnomci liberalpolicies to be adopted and enforced through global institutions as a areactuon to communism. to ahcieve economic objectives:

• GAT/ WTO

• IMF

• WB

• reinforced by the washington consensus: 1980s, economic liberalism → source of growth

Structural Adjustment Programmes and evaluation

SAPs are when states receiving loans undertake it, IMF security members states specific economic goals/ reforms on conditions of loans. tied in with an economic liberal perspectives:

• fiscal austerity: cuts to gov spending

• privatisation: selling state and enterprises to private investors

• trade liberalisation: promoting trade orientated economies

• deregulation

criticised for attaching conditions to loans to poorer countries

e.g. egypt in 2016: $2bn loans requires, increasing VAT, decreasing public spending and liberalising exchange rate → led to multiple protests

ecuador: typical sap measures led to massive public unrest and political instability

kenya (2020) recent IMF backed austerity measures aimed at fiscal consolidation resulted in protests

evaluation:

pros: liberal economic policies, fiscal responsibility (greece got themselves into a lot of debt of lowest levels possible, went to IMF for loans, ahd to reduce welfare spending and significant increase pension age, privatisation, increasing tax reforms) long term green economy improved

cons: liberal economic policies, fiscal responsibilities: structural and socialist views is that the img avcy for the rich states and agree to do things in the GN interests and noy in greece interest like privatisation (allows TNCs buy at a low price) the proletariat suffer from this because of welfare cuts, rich don’t pay taxes which leads to negative economic growth

What does the WTO do?

created as a permanent organisation with a wider focus.

expanding free trade concessions equally to all members

free-er global trades and fewer barriers (tariffs)

making trade more predictable through established rules

trade more competitive by removing subsidies

roles: negotiations on trade liberalisation, investigate breaches of trade agreements and to suggest remedies, internal court over disputes (164 members)

disputes: change law to conform to WTO law, pay permanent compensation, face non negotiable trade sanctions, if countries don’t follow it gives countries a chance to do what they want

e.g. general agreements on trade and tariffs (1947) 45,000 tariff removals agreed, impacted $10bn worth of international trade

weakness of the WTO

It is too powerful: It can compel sovereign states to change laws and regulations by declaring them to be in violation of free-trade rules. Decision making is dominated by the US and EU. Lacks external accountability

What is the G7(8)?

formed in 1920s and cold war in leading industrialized nations

an informal bloc of industrialised democracies that meets annually to discuss issues such as global economic governance, international security, and energy policy.

US, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and the UK and eu attends meetings

intergovernmental

roles: boost cooperation over trade and finance, strengthen the global economy, promote peace and democracy, prevent and resolve conflicts

informal but exclusive groups tackling global challenges

can agree on policies and set objectives but compliance is entirely voluntary

What is the G20?

created in 1999 and has more significant during the financial crisis

its representative: power (economic and military), population, all regions of the world

The purpose of the organisation is to promote international financial stability and replace the G7 as the main economic forum of wealthy nations. The G20 is more diverse than the G7, with a membership including Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Mexico and the USA from the American continent, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea from Asia, Saudi Arabia from the Middle East, South Africa and Australia

purposes: macroeconomic policy coordination- ensure global economic stability and fostering growth, financial regulations- developing policies to prevent future crises and regulating global finance, global governance reform- shape international economic architecture for greater inclusivity, address global challenges- global health, digital economy, employment and anti corruption

evaluation of IGOs

liberals argue that they are really good:

• cooperation: kantian triangle (IGOs and economic liberals)

• economic liberalism → interdependence → competition → incentives → economic growth (GDP per capita, welfare index, decreasing absolute poverty)

• acts as a peace strategy

• evidence: south east asia - china, south korea, india - increasing gdp, increasing HDI, decreasing absolute poverty

however,

• structural theorists/ world system theory: economic IGOs are agents of the global north/ TNCs core/periphery → developed in GS is limited → GAP in global north and global south

• realists: worried that IGOs decrease relative power, decrease in sovereignty, decrease in relative position but, could increase relative power

• socialists → concerned as economic IGOs all promote economic liberalism/ capitalism, doesn’t promote equality. benefit some more → want a government controlled economy and bigger role of gov

• green movement: concerned with environment + collective change, economic IGOs promote economic growth (liberalism) which uses energy → fossil fuels and promoting CO2 production

• post colonial → former colonies → from western powers these all have a dominant perspective (freedom of liberty, democracy, liberalism, HR, development = economic

global human rights

international law- rules that govern relations between states which generally accept the binding authority of international law, since it provides a framework for cooperation between state and guards against the dangers of global anarchy. but no supranational authority

universal human rights- rights to which people are entitled because they are human regardless of their characters. they are fundamental, universal, indivisible and non negotiable

human rights are rights to which people are entitled to by being human’ they are universal, fundamental and indivisible

negative human rights- freedom from being oppressed, non interference and individual liberty e.g. right to not be censored by the government

positive human rights- freedoms to do something without restrictions

key dates in global human rights

1948 - UNDHR created by eleanor roosevelt to reaffirm human rights after ww2 declaring that they are universal and indivisible. but, no power to enforce or punish aggressors, inability to monitor and investigate incidents

1993- vienna, world conference of human rights hosted, UNHCHR spokesperson appointed to criticize states breaking HR, no legal power, vienna declaration and programme for action to strengthen global human rights

1998/2002- ICC established to prosecute individuals for genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. the home statute was adopted in 1998 and became operational in 2002. becoming a permanent international tribunal for human rights

2005- HRC UNHR council- UN commission on HR replaced by the HRC in 2006, with the GA establishing the council in 2006. HRC was intended to strengthen the protection of HR and address violations. creating a wider mandate and representation with 47 states and reports directly to GA smf periodic reviews of HR on each member state. R2P- adopted by heads of state that each state has responsibility to protect its own citizens from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing

implications of human rights for global politics

• liberal foreign policy/ intervention: when in breach of the organisation such as NATO condemns

• a right to intervene.

• international sovereignty: arguably dilutes national sovereignty through criticisms and giving protestors rights against their own government

• globalisation: shares all the same ideas about human rights expansion of UNDHR, apart of the same process

• conflict and clash of civilisations: feels western and non western states like china and russia would feel it doesn’t align with their belief systems

• changes of consistencies/ treaties: israel/ palestine not consistent

sources of authority in GHR

UNDHR: part of the UN charter as a first attempt to codify a set of human rights, as a direct response to acts committed in ww2, notably the holocaust- ensure such horrors will never happen again, establishing a global common standard of rights and human rights for all people e.g. article 1- all humans born free and equal in dignity and rights, article 3- everyone has a right to life, liberty and safe from oppression, article 18- freedom of thought, confidence

positives: a legal standard to judge against, moral force used by NGOs to world states to connect shown through the soviet union (amnesty international), universal- applied to everyone

negatives: many states part of UN sont meet these standards, not justiciable in any court, western cultural bias

UNHR commissioner: currently volker turk, 1993, role is to promote adherence to human rights and expose their exploitation. leading global protection and ghr, act independently to their abuses, advice un secretary and technical assistance to states

positives: global advocacy, on the ground support, expertise and standards

negatives: lack of enforcement, cooperation issues, limited resources

UN human rights council: 2005 meets to discuss reforms of un, 47 member states, members elected by ga for a period of 3 years and not expected to serve more than 2 terms. aims- helps member states meets their UN HR commitments, recommendations to ga on international law, forum for dialogue and cooperation

positives: fairly inclusive, gives many people a value

negatives: hard to come to a conclusion, difficult to gain a consensus, only there to talk not get stuff done, no law making powers, no enforcement, any advice/ recommendations

What does the ICJ do?

UNs primary judicial branch established by the UN charter in 1948, seen as the most important court in international law

settles disputes in a peaceful way via acceptance of IL

15 judges with a geographical spread, elected by GA and UNSC on a staggered basis, dealt with 201 cases since 1946

role: settle international disputes between states based pn IL from international treaties, general principles. produces advisors on questions of IL, arbitrary in relation is only reserved to ICJ if both parties agree to it, and aren’t binding

clause 26 was created for states to opt into compulsory jurisdiction. 75 states have done so (USA, israel and qatar have not)

Makes judgements on issues brought to it by UN organisations and specialist agencies.

evaluation of ICJ

ICJ and HR: limited effective role in HR because: its not a common court, more focused on disputes between nations, relies on countries agreeing to have their case heard

but, countries do sometimes have HR disputes, qatar and usa

limitations:

• no compulsory jurisdiction

• reactive not proactive

• no enforcement procedures

• perceived as a western instrument

• conflict with realism

• links to UNSC

successes:

• 1986 burkina faso and mali: disagreement over an unclear colonial era border, with arguments for both countries for valuable area, resolved by dividing the and in a bind wuling that both states accepted

• 1992 el salvador and honduras: both states voluntarily submitted a dispute that had already caused a war, accepting a complex ruling that divided land, islands and maritime zones → compliance solely relies on countries with will rather than enforcement mechanisms

• 2002 nigeria and cameroon: dispute on who owned territory, ICJ ruled that cameroon had sovereignty over the land, nigeria complied and withdrew by 2008

failures:

• 1980 iran and us embassy: iran ordered military to seize the us embassy in tehran and hold 52 american diplomats hostage, US brought the case to the ICJ which ruled that uran must immediately release the hostages and give back the embassy but iran refused and ignored judgement → demonstrating legal authority but lack of practicality

• 1986 nicaragua and USA: us supplied control rebels against the socialist nicaragua gov. us mined harbors and trained insurgents - nicaragua claimed this violated IL. us found guilty breaching the prohibition against use of force and infringed on nicaraguan sovereignty, courts rejected USAs claim of self defence: lack of evidence and proper legal condition for collective self defence → usa told to pay reparations to nicaragua but refuse to comply and did not attend further meetings

• 2004 israeli/ west bank barrier: israeli peace wall icj ruled as illegal but can’t force israel to comply, enforcement limited due to us support of israel in UNSC, construction of the barrier in west bank largely continued

What does the ICC do?

Not part of the UN family of organisations. Responsible for investigating and putting on trial individuals who have been accused of some of the most horrific and heinous crimes in the world

international tribunals

international tribunals: UN mandated international tribunals established to prosecute those responsible for crimes against humanity, war crimes and acts of genocide

tribunals differ from the ICJ: they are ‘ad hoc’ i.e. set up when needed, criminal i.e to prosecute people, usually for HR issues rather than to settle disputes

aims: to do justice in the case of war crimes, deter further war crimes/ hr abuses, establish the principle that heads of gov aren’t above the law, contribute to restoration and maintenance of peace

limitations: inconsistent (former yugoslavia, rwanda, iraq, russia/ malaysia flight 17), post-hoc, perceived as western instrument, now used less (replaced by ICC)

successes of international tribunals

• during balkan wars milosevic (serbia’s president) backed serb military forces in bosnia and croatia. in 1998 albanians in kosovo stepped up their attempts to break free from serb federation, in response he was accused of instigating ethnic cleansing and provoking NATO air war against serbia, after his otherthrow from mass protests he was arrested and deported to the hague

• rwanda: succeeded in prosecuting high ranking officials, kambanda, prime minister of the interim government. most convictions based on crimes against humanity and genocide

ECHR

ECHR: Aims to promote human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. a court of last resort: individuals or groups who feel that their rights have been breached by a signatory state may appeal to the court to have their case heard if all other legal avenues have been exhausted.

derives from european convention on HR signed in 1958 bu 22 states that were/ are members of the council of europe. it’s nothing to do with eu although members of the ECHR are similar

the convention created: a commission to determine whether cases were admissible to the court, a court based in strasbourg with compulsory jurisdiction i.e. decisions are binding although the court has no methods of physical enforcement

ECHR evaluation

pros:

• compulsory jurisdiction for signatory states

• coverage of almost all european states

• eu states must be members - has provided a strong incentive for states to improve their HR record

• allow national courts ‘first dibs’

negatives:

• states don’t have to join can leave

• only covers europe

• some states have found that the convention creates problems when dealing with issues of terrorism

• image problems

• countries must exhaust all domestic options first

R2P

2005, UN secretary general kofi annan keen to refine extent which a state could act in defiance of the moral precepts of international community

response to kosovo intervention annan argued states could now no longer claim absolute authority over their citizens. instead a states sovereignty was conditional upon its ability to protect its citizens human rights. state sovereignty ‘conditional’ upon its ability to protect its citizens from harm, if it fails in this duty that responsibility passes to the international community

reasons for humanitarian intervention

• increased support for liberal approach (humans not states) much however has changed since 2005 as liberal democracy is now in retreat

• increased media coverage: worldwide media

• new world order/ post cold war: american in early 2000s can do what they want as a military superpower

• benefits to security: stands up for HR

positive humanitarian intervention

• kosovo: 1999 nato got involved to prevent ethnic cleansing to kosovan nationals as series of war crimes committed during the kosovo war forces of milosevic’s regime committed rape, killed many albanians along with widespread destruction of poverty. conflict resolved when president of yugoslavia agreed to NATOs terms to end bombings, regimes. and create peace with little backlash

• east timor: 2001 international force east timor organised by australia in accordance un resolution to address humanitarian and security crisis there, established a referendum on independence overwhelmed in favour of independence from indonesia, after result violence outbreak calling for UN peacekeeping force the same day, 25% of the population dead, intervention resulted in largely peaceful east timor with local support leading its success

• what leads to humanitarian success: clear objective and plan, military feasibility, mandate/ support, commitment to success, local support, nation building

tragedy of the commons

if you have a common resource (one that everybody or nobody owns) the rational liberal individual which maximise their use for their advantage, everybody else will do the same, therefore it gets over-used and everybody suffers as a result

climate change : common resource → atmosphere → burning fossil fuels and CO2 → produces energy to benefit themselves → net effect on global warming

UNFCCC

• international treaty that sets up a process through which future international negotiations on climate change could take place → 197 countries signed, 127 ratfies

• principles: aims of human safety, focuses on greenhouse gases, extra responsibility for developed nations

• stockholm un conference on human environment (1972)

• Rio earth summit (1992)

• kyoto summit (1997)

• copenhagen climate change conference (2009)

• paris cop 21 summit (2016)

Rio earth summit 1992

one of the major results of the UNFCCC conferences was agenda 21, called for new strategies for investment in the future to achieve overall sustainable development in the 21st century: new methods of education, new ways of preserving natural resources and new ways of participating in a sustainable economy

achievements: 27 universal principles for climate change prevention, convention on biological diversity, declarations of principles of forest management, the earth summit also led to the creation of the commision on sustainable development of small islands.

limitations: most documents are not binding to as countries appeal to their sovereignty and don’t accept supranational mandates. some of the representatives of developing states and NGOs attempted unsuccessful to prioritise the link between environmental crisis and impact of debt, hard recession and trade links of developing nations

kyoto cop3 1997

achievements: kyoto protocol which affects 37 industrialized states and eu pledge to lower all greenhouse gases by 5.2% (compared to 1990) by 2012, introduced idea of carbon markets, allowed countries to trade emissions allowances, monetary incentives for those releasing less emissions. introduced CDM to enlarge internet in less developed states

limitations: australia and us reluctant, us passed resoluton stating any treaty not including the developing states would ratify, australia argued it would be detrimental, only 37 states and eu aimed reduction by 5.2% below 1990, some countries dont meet the requirements under protocol

weaknesses of international agreements in environment

• most of the growth of emissions would come from emerging economies so hard to stop them

• does not include all countries - especially more growth is significant

• usa and russia opted out

• nothing to enforce it

but

• vast majority achieve what they intended to do

copenhagen cop15, 2009

achieved: goal to limit temperature rises to 2 degrees, opportunity for states to enter into specific mitigation policies by 2010. further commitment by developed states to contribute $30 billion between 2010 and 2012 to developing and 3rd world countries, called for a new green climate fund to be established

after conference: US and BASIC states seek to continue the previous iterations of the kyoto protocol as well as variable means to control climate change, saw the adoption of new international goals for biodiversity. tries to get a comprehensive treaty

limitations: final draft of copenhagen, many responded negatively and raised criticisms about the agreement). uk, us and australia states the agreements good but needs work. lack of legal binding, no real targets in relation to emissions, only 5 countries in process, wasn’t any guarantee where funding for climate change effects would come from, many countries dot adopt, international approach to technology

paris 2015 cop21

achievements: international agreement on clime change ratified by 196 countries, goal of limiting global warming to below 2 degrees below pre industrial levels

key commitments: nationally determined contributions, long term goals, transparency and accountability, financial support. significant agreement but more well is reloaded → legally binding and 20 states incorporated into their domestic law, finance for poorer countries

limitations: lack of enforcement mechanisms, insufficient ambition, insufficient funding, highlighting need for confirmed action and invested ambition to achieve goals. trump later withdrew and biden took them in for trump to withdraw again

recent COPs

cop28 (dubai): consensus to transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems

cop29 (baku): focus on climate dinace and a deal for developing nations to mobilize at least $300 billion annually by 2035 for developing countries

cop30 (belem): implementation, adaption and finance supporting developing nations in their climate goals

IPCC

Provides impartial information from expertise about climate change to decision makers (causes of, impacts and solutions)

first assessment reports 1990: confirmed increasing greenhouse gases have caused climate change and human activity caused it, predicted a 0.3 degree increase

third assessment 2001: some ecosystems and species have lost in action to reduce climate change not taken

fourth assessment 2007: many impacts can be reduced, avoided through mitigation. 90% certain caused by humans

fifth assessment 2015: 800 experts confirmed loss of sheets in antarctica and greenland 95-100% human caused

sixth assessment 2025: wanting to limit warming to 1.5 decrees before 2025 and decline by 43% by 2030. immediate action entails aggressive rapid fossil fuel reduction to enhance energy efficiency and increase investment. 40% of the world is not on track to meet demands

• liberal issue because rational choice

• experts and climate scientists produce annual reports suggests an relance of what needs to be done to achieve certain goals

weaknesses of environmental GG

• developing vs emerging countries: because of the use of high energy developed nations are where they are, elss developed believe they should be able to do the same adn this is a problem that developed states should deal with a and focusing resources on other forms of development

• comprehensive treaties → have to get in treaty including every state and get everyone to agree becoming a non radical treaty as you have to go with the lowest common denominator to maintain state sovereignty → no one compelled to sign the treat

• most countries not committed to net zero: usa (climate scepticism), china, russia

• 2015 federalism and politics towards the rights → climate scepticism

• cop30 no strong presence in 2024 and fossil fuels agreement to phase them out but no date

What do Shallow Green ecologists believe?

• anthropometric view looking at it from a human perspective and how it affects us

• haves have the most importance

• take action on climate change as they see it as problematic, pursuing green policies that are beneficial to us

• development is based on HDI, welfare index and GDP

• labour would agree and renewable energy and main concern in growing economy and standard of living

• sustainable = green capitalism , sustainable, green taxes, subsidies. incentives

What do Deep Green ecologists believe?

• ecologism view: every species has intrinsic values and worried about the entire ecosystem

• Human interests should not take priority over nature and plants.

• agree with sustainable development, with a change in the view of development: restoration of biodiversity, decreasing CO2 levels, temps decreased to before pre industrial levels

• prioritising the entirety of the global ecosystem through mitigation

• Climate change cannot be combatted under capitalism due to its exploitative nature, radical change is needed → production means large use of energy/ resources and other eco damage

• not focused on economic side of socialism is still focuses on traditional view of development, solution is to abolish capitalism and change human behavior

other green views

• deniers

• pure- adaptionists: anthropocentric, yes climate change is real and human caused but let it be and adapt to it in the future

What is sustainable development?

Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Give two examples of international treaties where environmental protections have been agreed.

The 1959 Antartic Treaty, Montreal Protocol 1987

power

ability of an actor to persuade, influence, force or change another actor to undertake or change an objective that it would prefer to keep

power as a capability: imply a conventional analysis whereby an actor has a specific capability that gives them power over others e.g. airforce

power as a relationship: one actor has power over another → deterrence where they prevent you interfering in affairs of my state (full authority/ sovereignty) → compellence os power if i can make you do something

structural power

agenda control, ability to shape the frameworks within which global actors relate to one another by affecting how things should be done

focuses: international institutions → how they are set up, roles decisions. values → key values that dominate global politics

and therefore powerful if it can achieve its goals by having structural power even if it doesn’t possess capabilities such as military power

What is hard power?

• command power (power over)

• carrot and stick approach

• focus is on economy and military: sanctions, payments, bribes, favourable trade deals (trump)

• incentives to change behaviour

• military: deterrence (nuclear and conventional weapons), offensively (pre-emption), persuasion → nuclear weapons, defence spending, projectability

• economic: trade agreements, sanction, tariffs, investment

What is soft power?

• co optive power (power with)

• sharing attitudes by attraction rather than coercion

• ideas, culture, political ideas, foreign policy reinforced by legitimacy and possession of moral authority

• growing importance since cold war from interdependence and interconnectedness

• improvements in education and democracy, persuade rather than compel (long lasting)

• culture/ media, political system, values, economy

• e.g. 1945-91 cold war promoting freedom, economic and culture. 2015 trump and MAGA. 1990s liberal values dominated policies. USA media, soviet union 1930s communism