AP CHEM MASTER SET

Phosphate

Hydroxide

Sulfate

Acetate

Ammonium

Chlorate

Nitrate

Permanganate

Chromate

Carbonate

Cyanide

DiChromate

Nitrite

Sulfite

Hydrogen Carbonate

Perchlorate

Chlorite

Hypochlorite

The oxidation state of neutral atoms not bonded to atoms of other elements is…

an oxidation state of 0

The oxidation state of of an ion is…

equal to the charge on that ion

In most compounds the oxidation state of Oxygen is…

-2

The Oxidation state of oxygen in peroxides is…

-1

The oxidation state of Hydrogen that’s bonded to a nonmetal is…

+1

The oxidation state of Hydrogen that’s bonded to a metal is…

-1

In the absence of oxygen the oxidation state of the most electronegative element is…

equal to its most common charge

The combined oxidation states in a neutral atom is equal to… and in an polyatomic ion its equal to…

0 and the charge on that ion

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 2 and 0 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 3 and 0 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 3 and 1 Dlone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 4 and 0 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 4 and 1 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 4 and 2 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 5 and 0 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 5 and 1 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 5 and 2 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 5 and 3 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 6 and 0 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 6 and 1 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 6 and 2 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 6 and 3 lone pairs

The name and angle of the VSEPR structure w/ a steric no. of 6 and 4 lone pairs

A variant of a chemical element with the same no. of protons and a different amount of neutrons…

Isotopes

The atomic model and theory that treated atoms as solid featureless spheres and it was the first atomic theory based on empirical evidence…

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Described atoms as uniform spheres of positively charged soup or jelly w/ negatively charged electrons throughout

Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model

The model that was discovered with gold foil experiment

Rutherford’s Nuclear model

Described electrons being localized in levels around the nucleus

Bohr’s Atomic Model

Aufbau principle

Electrons will fill up orbitals with the lowest energy level first

Exceptions to the Aufbau principle

Chromium and Copper

The energy required to remove an electron

Ionization Energy

Ionization energy Periodic Trend

• Increases Left to Right

• Decreases down a group

The tendency of an atom to attract and form bonds with electrons

Electronegativity

The energy released when an electron is gained by a neutral version of an atom

Electron Affinity

Electronegativity Trends

• Increases left to right

• Decreases down a group

Atomic Radius Trends

• Decreases left to right

• Increases down a group

When inner shell electrons repel outer shell electrons and push them away from the positive attraction from the nucleus

Electron shielding

Ionization energy will always be…

positive

Factors that affect Ionization energy

• Nuclear charge

• Electron sheilding

• Zeff

• Distance of valance electrons from nucleus

Atomic Theory

• All matter is composed of atoms

• Elements of the same type are composed of similar atoms

• Chemical reactions are merely rearrangement of atoms

Wavelength and Frequency of light are…

inversely proportional

Electrons will fill empty orbitals first before pairing up and they require different spins

Hund’s Rule

Bonds formed by metals and nonmetals and occurs during the transfer of electrons

Ionic bonds

Bonds formed between non-metals and from the sharing of electrons

Covalent bonds

Properties of Ionic Bonds

• Low conductivity due to localized electrons for solids

  • High conductivity in aqueous solutions due to free moving electrons

• Non-malleble

• High melting points

• High boiling points

Properties of Covalent Bonds

• Very low conductivity

• Non-malleble

• Lower melting points

• non-ductile

A single bond consists of…

One sigma bond

A double bond consists of…

One sigma and one pi bond

A triple bond consists of…

One sigma and two pi bonds

Caused by differences in polarity, the higher electronegative atom has a negative pole

Dipole-Dipole Force

A specific type of another bond that’s due to H being very positive due to its low electronegativity and being attracted to very electronegative atoms such as (F,O,N)

Hydrogen bonding

Random movement of electrons create temporary dipoles

London dispersion forces

The thing to be dissolved

Solutes

The thing its dissolved in…

Solvent

Assumptions made by Kinetic molecular theory

• Gases are in constant random motion

• All collisions between are elastic

• The volume of molecules is negligible

• There is no attraction between molecules

• All gasses in a sample have the same avg. KE

Gases deviate from ideal…

• high pressures

• low temperatures

as pressure increases volume decreases

Boyle’s Law

as temp increases volume increases

Charles Law

Solubility Rules; Compounds with nitrates are…

usually soluble

Solubility Rules; Compounds with any group 1 metal salts are…

usually soluble

Solubility rules; compounds with ammonium are…

usually soluble

solubility rules; compounds with acetates are…

usually soluble

Solubility rules; Compounds with Phosphates are…

usually insoluble

Solubility Rules; compounds with hydroxides are…

usually insoluble

Solubility rules; compounds with carbonates are…

usually insoluble

1 mol of a gas is equal to…

22.4 liters

The measure of the energy thats released or absorbed by the substance when bonds are formed or released during a reaction

Enthalpy (ΔH)

ΔH Formula (change in enthalpy)

ΔH = H_products - H_reactants

When products have more energy than the reactants at the end of a reaction

Endothermic reaction

When reactants have more energy than the products at the end of a reaction

Exothermic reaction

A reaction where ΔH is positive

Exothermic

A reaction where ΔH is negative

Endothermic

In an Exothermic reaction the E’_a is…

greater than the E_a

In an Endothermic reaction the E’_a is…

less than the E_a

Four ways to speed up a reaction

• Raise the temperature

• Increase the concentration

• Decrease particle size

• Add a catalyst

The reaction is a 0th order reaction if the graph of …. is a straight line

[A] vs time

The reaction is a 1st order reaction if the graph of … is a straight line

ln[A] vs time

The reaction is a 2nd order reaction if the graph of … is a straight line

1/[A] vs time

elementary step with 2 reactants

bimolecular step

elementary step with 1 reactant

unimolecular step

a elementary step with 3 reactants

termolecular step

an unstable high-energy transition state molecule formed after the reactant state but before the product state

Activated complex