Political science exam 3

What are non-democracies?  Name and describe at least five differences between democracies and non-democracies.  Why are some states non-democracies?  Name and describe at least three factors.

A non-democracy is a government that isnt elected by the people. Democracies have free and fair elections, active political participation, protected civil liberties, rule of law, and government accountability. Nondemocracies limit or control these elements. Some states are nondemocratic due to factors such as low economic development, which makes stable institutions harder to build, weak civil society that limits public influence, and strong ideologies or leaders that centralize power and restrict freedoms.

How do non-democracies achieve control or legitimation?  Name and describe at least three methods.

Nondemocracies achieve control or legitimation through Output legitimacy, Coercion, Elite Co-optation, Charisma. output legitimacy, where the government gains support by providing economic growth, public goods, and stability, leading people to accept the regime because their quality of life improves. Another method is coercion, which involves the use or threat of force, such as surveillance, imprisonment, or violence, to ensure obedience. A third method is elite co-optation, where the regime maintains support by rewarding key individuals or groups with benefits or power in exchange for loyalty. Some also use charisma, building legitimacy through a strong leader’s personality and propaganda to create a cult-like following.

Name and describe five types of non-democratic regimes.

5 types are Monarch, Military, One Party, Theocracies, and illiberal regimes. Personal or monarchical rule is when a single leader holds power without legal limits and rewards loyal supporters through patronage. Military rule occurs when the armed forces take control of the government, often through a coup, and maintain power through force. One-party rule exists when a single political party dominates the government and bans or limits opposition. Theocracies are systems where religious leaders govern based on religious laws and authority. Lastly, illiberal regimes have elections but manipulate them, limit civil liberties, and concentrate power in the hands of leaders.

What is communism?  Why did it emerge as a political ideology in 19th century Europe?  How does communism differ from socialism?  Name and describe at least three aspects of Marxist communism.

Communism is a political and economic system where property and wealth are shared to create equality and eliminate exploitation. It emerged in 19th century Europe because the Industrial Revolution caused major inequality and poor working conditions for workers. Communism differs from socialism because socialism allows some private property and gradual reform, while communism seeks to completely eliminate private property through revolution. Three key aspects of Marxist communism are class struggle (conflict between workers and owners), surplus value (workers are exploited for profit), and dialectical materialism (society changes through conflict toward communism).

What is Marxist-Leninism?  How did Marxist-Leninist states like the USSR and the People's Republic of China structure their governments after their communist revolutions?  How did they structure their economies?  How did they structure their societies?

Marxist-Leninism is a form of communism that combines Marx’s ideas with Lenin’s belief that a small vanguard party can lead a revolution. After their revolutions, countries like the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China created one-party governments where the Communist Party controlled all political power. Their economies were organized as command economies, where the state planned production, prices, and distribution instead of using free markets. In society, these states aimed for equality but used surveillance, censorship, and repression to control people and maintain power.

Why did communism collapse in the USSR and Eastern Europe?  Name and describe at least five reasons.  Name and describe at least three aspects of post-communist transition.

Communism collapsed in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe for several reasons. First, economic inefficiency made command economies unable to meet people’s needs. Second, high costs of the Cold War drained resources. Third, the war in Afghanistan weakened the Soviet Union. Fourth, the Revolutions of 1989 spread democracy across Eastern Europe. Fifth, there was growing public dissatisfaction with corruption and repression.

Post-communist transition involved three main aspects. First, political transition, where countries tried to create democratic governments and protect civil rights. Second, economic transition, where they moved from planned economies to market economies, often causing inequality and poverty. Third, social transition, where religion and national identities returned, sometimes leading to ethnic conflict.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political regime of the Iran.  Does the state have a written constitution and if so, when and under what conditions was it written?  How is the executive structured?  What is the title and power of the head of government?  Is the head of state a separate office?  Who is currently head of government and head of state?  How is the legislature structured?  How is the judiciary structured?  What are the major religious institutions of the government?  How are they structured?  How do they interact with the political institutions?

Iran has a theocratic political regime. The country has a written constitution created after the 1979 Islamic Revolution, which replaced the monarchy with an Islamic Republic based on the idea of gods will. The executive branch is divided into two parts: the president, who is the head of government and runs daily affairs like enforcing laws and managing the budget, and the Supreme Leader, who is the head of state and holds the most power. The current president is Masoud Pezeshkian, while the Supreme Leader is Mojtaba Khamenei, who controls the military, judiciary, and major political decisions. The legislature is a unicameral body called the Majlis, whose members are elected by the people but must be approved beforehand. The judiciary is based on Islamic law and is led by a Chief Justice appointed by the Supreme Leader. Religious institutions such as the Guardian Council with 12 members and the Assembly of Experts with 88 members. The Guardian Council checks laws to make sure they follow Islamic rules and decides who can run in elections, while the Assembly of Experts chooses the Supreme Leader and can remove him if necessary. These religious bodies work closely with the political system, giving them strong influence over laws, elections, and leadership, which keeps religion at the center of Iran’s government.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political competition of Iran.  What type of electoral system does the state have?  How are members of the executive elected?  What are the term lengths?  How are members of the legislature elected?  What are the term lengths?  What type of party system does the state have?  What are the names and ideological orientations of the major political groupings?  How do the religious institutions control who is eligible to run for political office?  When was the last election?  What were the results?  When is the next scheduled elections?

Iran’s political competition includes elections, but it is limited and controlled by religious institutions. The country uses a mixed electoral system with single-member and multi-member districts to elect members of the Majlis and the Assembly of Experts. The executive is partly elected, as the president is chosen by popular vote, but only candidates approved by the ruling system can run. Presidents serve four-year terms and can serve a maximum of two terms. Members of the legislature, the Majlis, are also elected by the public to four-year terms, but candidates must first be approved by the Guardian Council. Iran does not have a fully competitive party system. Political competition mainly exists between two major groups: the Principlists, who are conservative and support strong religious rule, and the Reformists, who are more moderate and support political and social reforms. Religious institutions play a major role in limiting competition, especially the Guardian Council, which vets and disqualifies candidates, often removing many Reformist candidates from elections. The most recent parliamentary election took place in 2020, where Principlists regained control after many Reformists were barred from running. The most recent election was in 2024 after the death of the original president. Masoud was elected as president, the next election is in 2029.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political regime of China.  Does the state have a written constitution and if so, when and under what conditions was it written?  How is the executive structured?  What is the title and power of the head of government?  Is the head of state a separate office?  Who is currently head of government and head of state?  How is the legislature structured?  How is the judiciary structured?  What are the major communist party institutions?  How are they structured?  How do the communist party institutions interact with the political institutions?

China has an authoritarian political regime and is a one-party state controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It does have a written constitution, but real power comes from the CCP rather than the constitution itself. The executive is structured through both the government and the party, with the most powerful leader being the General Secretary of the CCP. The head of government is the Premier, who runs the State Council and manages daily government functions; the current Premier is Li Qiang. The head of state is a separate role, the President, currently Xi Jinping, but Xi also holds the top party and military positions. The legislature is the unicameral National People’s Congress, which has limited real power and mainly follows CCP decisions. The judiciary is led by the Supreme People’s Court, but it is not independent and is controlled by the party. The main communist party institutions include the National Party Congress, Central Committee, Politburo, and Politburo Standing Committee, all organized in a hierarchy where power is concentrated at the top. These party institutions work alongside government institutions in a system called organized parallelism, meaning the party makes the decisions and the government carries them out.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political competition of China.  What type of electoral system does the state have?  How are members of the executive elected?  What are the term lengths?  How are members of the legislature elected?  What are the term lengths?  When was the last election?  What were the results?  When is the next scheduled elections?  How are the members of the "inner party" of the communist party chosen? How does the inner party make decisions?  When was their last major party meeting?  What was decided at that meeting?

It is a one-party system controlled by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), so there are no competitive national elections. Leaders are chosen within the CCP rather than by the public. The executive like the president are selected by the party and formally approved by the National People’s Congress (NPC). The president, currently Xi Jinping, no longer has strict term limits after changes in 2018, and the most powerful role is actually the CCP General Secretary. The head of government, the Premier, is appointed and helps run the State Council rather than being elected by voters. Members of the legislature, the NPC, are indirectly elected by lower-level congresses and serve five-year terms. The most recent major election cycle was in 2023, when top leadership positions were confirmed, and the next cycle will follow the same five-year pattern. Real political competition occurs within the CCP, where members of the inner party—such as the Central Committee, Politburo, and Standing Committee—are selected through a controlled process influenced by top leaders. Decisions are made at the top levels of the party, often behind closed doors, rather than through open debate. The most recent major party meeting, the 2022 National Party Congress, confirmed Xi’s continued leadership and strengthened his control. Overall, China’s system concentrates power within the CCP and limits true political competition.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political regime of Russia.  Does the state have a written constitution and if so, when and under what conditions was it written?  What recent changes were made to the Russian Constitution?  How is the executive structured?  What is the title and power of the head of government?  Is the head of state a separate office?  Who is currently head of government and head of state?  How is the legislature structured?  If the legislature is bicameral, how do the two chambers differ?  How is the judiciary structured?  

Russia has an authoritarian political regime with some democratic features, but real power is concentrated in the presidency. The country has a written constitution that was created in 1993 after the collapse of the Soviet Union under Boris Yeltsin, but it limits public influence and gives strong authority to the executive branch. In 2020, changes to the constitution increased presidential power and allowed the current president to potentially remain in power longer. The executive is dominated by the president, who controls the military, appoints key officials, and has major influence over laws and policy. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who oversees the cabinet and manages daily operations, but has less power than the president. The head of state is a separate office, held by Vladimir Putin, who is the most powerful leader in Russia. The current Prime Minister is Mikhail Mishustin. The legislature is a bicameral parliament made up of the State Duma and the Federation Council. The State Duma is the lower house that passes laws, while the Federation Council is the upper house that represents Russia’s regions. The judiciary is led by the Constitutional Court, whose judges are chosen with strong influence from the president. Although courts can review laws, they are not fully independent and usually support the government. Overall, Russia’s system combines formal democratic institutions with strong authoritarian control.

In at least 10 sentences, describe the political competition of Russia.  What type of electoral system does the state have?  How are members of the executive elected?  What are the term lengths?  How are members of the legislature elected?  What are the term lengths?  When was the last election?  What were the results?  When is the next scheduled elections?  Why does the United Russia Party dominate elections in Russia?  Name and describe at least three mechanisms of their electoral dominance.

Russia has a semi-authoritarian political system with limited real political competition, even though it formally has elections and multiple parties. The country uses a mixed electoral system in which the president is directly elected by the public, while members of the legislature are chosen through a combination of proportional representation and single-member districts. Members of the executive are not fully chosen through open competition, as the president is elected but the prime minister is appointed by the president. Presidential terms last six years, while members of the State Duma serve five-year terms. The most recent presidential election was held in 2018, when Vladimir Putin won by a large margin, and the next presidential election is scheduled for 2024. The most recent legislative election was the 2021 State Duma election, where the United Russia Party maintained a strong majority in parliament. United Russia dominates elections because it benefits from several structural advantages that limit fair competition. First, it has a strong incumbency advantage due to its close connection to Putin and the government, which gives it more visibility and influence. Second, the state controls major media outlets, allowing it to promote pro-government views while limiting opposition voices. Third, opposition candidates often face restrictions, disqualification, or legal pressure, as seen with figures like Alexei Navalny. Overall, although elections exist in Russia, they are not fully competitive, and the political system is designed to maintain the dominance of the ruling party.