PSYC301 Test 2

Preconventional Morality

Moral reasoning based on avoiding punishment and seeking personal gain (typically ~3–7 years). Includes Stages 1 & 2

Conventional Morality

Focus on social rules, laws, and gaining approval from others (~8–13 years). Includes Stages 3 & 4

Postconventional Morality

Moral reasoning based on abstract principles like justice and human rights (~14+). Includes Stages 5 & 6

Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment)

Moral behaviour driven by avoiding punishment and obeying authority.

Stage 2 (Self-interest)

Moral decisions are based on personal benefit and reciprocal exchange.

Stage 3 (Good boy/nice girl)

Behaviour guided by social approval, relationships, and being seen as “good.”

Stage 4 (Law and order)

Moral reasoning focused on maintaining laws and social order.

Stage 5 (Social contract)

Laws are flexible and should maximise societal welfare and majority benefit.

Stage 6 morality

Universal ethical principles like justice and human rights (rare in reality).

What is egocentrism in moral development?

Difficulty understanding others’ perspectives; self-centred reasoning.

Prosocial Behaviour

Voluntary actions intended to benefit another person.

What are the three components of prosocial behaviour?

Identify need, understand cause/emotion, and motivation to intervene.

What are Dunfield’s three types of prosocial behaviour?

Helping, sharing, and comforting.

What is instrumental helping?

Helping others achieve physical goals (e.g., retrieving an object).

What is empathic helping?

Helping in response to another’s emotional distress.

What is altruistic helping?

Helping that involves personal cost (sacrificing own resources).

What is the “warm glow” effect?

Positive feelings experienced after helping others.

What does Tomasello argue about cooperation?

Cooperation is built on a self-interested foundation but layered with shared intentionality.

What did Green et al. (2018) find about compassionate helping?

Children rarely help when there is a personal cost, even if others are distressed.

What is a minimal group paradigm used for?

Studying how arbitrary group membership influences ingroup/outgroup bias.

Which three theories emphasise the importance of whānau in children's development?

Sociocultural Theory (Vygotsky), Whānau Theory (Marsden), and Bioecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner).

What early literacy skill develops during toddlerhood?

Letter recognition.

What early literacy skills emerge during preschool years?

Phonological awareness and advanced print concepts.

What early numeracy skill is present during infancy?

Basic sensitivity to numerosity.

What early numeracy skills emerge during preschool years?

Counting, number recognition, and number writing.

What self-regulation skill develops during toddlerhood?

Delaying behaviour on request.

What self-regulation skills emerge during preschool years?

Regulating attention and behaving appropriately for different contexts.

Why is language considered the foundation of early learning?

It predicts later literacy, numeracy, and self-regulation skills.

How does vocabulary support literacy development?

Vocabulary predicts reading achievement and phonological awareness.

What is the neighbourhood density argument?

Similar sounding words (e.g., dog, dig, dug) help children develop phonological awareness.

How does language support numeracy?

Learning number, quantity, and shape words supports mathematical understanding.

How does language support self-regulation?

Self-talk (inner speech) helps children regulate emotions, behaviour, and inhibitory control.

What is elaborative reminiscing?

Discussing past events with rich detail, emotions, explanations, and open-ended questions.

What is repetitive reminiscing?

Repeating information or questions, often serving important cultural and memory functions.

What did MacDonald et al. (2000) find?

Māori young adults reported earlier childhood memories than Pākehā and Chinese young adults.

What did Reese et al. (2008) find about Māori mothers?

Māori mothers elaborated more on birth stories, particularly time and emotional details.

What is inferential extratextual talk?

Book-reading talk that goes beyond the text through predictions, explanations, and connections.

What did Neha et al. (2020) find about inferential extratextual talk?

It was associated with stronger oral language skills.

What did Neha et al. (2020) find about elaborative reminiscing?

It predicted stronger oral language, literacy, and self-regulation.

What is the key message of a strengths-based approach?

Build upon cultural strengths rather than viewing differences as deficits.

What are the three main parental influences identified by Darling and Steinberg (1993)?

Parenting goals, parenting practices, and parenting style.

What are parenting goals?

The attributes or behaviours parents want to encourage in their children (e.g., academic success, respect, independence).

What are parenting practices?

Specific behaviours parents use to achieve parenting goals (e.g., setting bedtimes, helping with homework).

What is parenting style?

The emotional climate of the parent-child relationship, typically defined by warmth/responsiveness and control.

What are the four parenting styles in Maccoby and Martin's taxonomy?

Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Uninvolved.

What characterises authoritative parenting?

High warmth and high control; clear expectations combined with responsiveness and open communication.

What outcomes are associated with authoritative parenting?

Children tend to be cooperative, motivated, competent, independent, friendly, and self-assertive.

What characterises authoritarian parenting?

High control and low warmth; strict rules, punishment, obedience, and "because I said so" reasoning.

What outcomes are associated with authoritarian parenting?

Children may be withdrawn, hostile, shy, unmotivated, and less socially competent.

What are individualism and collectivism?

Individualism emphasises autonomy and independence, while collectivism emphasises group harmony, obligations, and relationships.

Why may authoritarian parenting have different effects across cultures?

The same behaviour can have different meanings (functions). In some cultures, strictness may communicate care and concern rather than hostility.

What is attachment?

A deep, enduring emotional bond between a child and caregiver that provides security and protection.

Who developed attachment theory and what were its key assumptions?

John Bowlby. Attachment is innate, early bonds shape development, and social deprivation can have negative consequences.

What is the Strange Situation and who developed it?

A laboratory procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to assess attachment by observing children's responses to separation and reunion.

What is the most important behaviour for identifying attachment style in the Strange Situation?

How the child responds when reunited with the caregiver.

What characterises secure attachment?

The child is distressed by separation, seeks comfort upon reunion, is easily soothed, and uses the caregiver as a secure base.

What are the three insecure attachment styles?

Ambivalent (resistant), Avoidant, and Disorganised.

What is an internal working model (IWM)?

A cognitive framework containing expectations about the self, others, and relationships, developed through early caregiving experiences.

What is caregiver attunement and why is it important?

Attunement is sensitive responsiveness to a child's emotional needs. It supports secure attachment, co-regulation, self-regulation, and later social competence.

What do cross-cultural attachment researchers mean by "universality without uniformity"?

Attachment processes appear universal, but caregiving practices and expressions of sensitivity vary across cultures.