AP Psychology Unit 1 (Perspectives & Research Methods)

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction (educated guess) about the outcome of an experiment

Informed Assent

An underage person’s agreement to participate in a research study (explained in age-appropriate terms) with consent given by a parent or guardian

Confidentiality

Requires researchers to keep sensitive data & personal info obtained during the study private

Informed Consent

The process of giving adult participants enough information about a study (purpose, procedures, risks, and rights) so they can voluntarily decide whether to participate.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Committees responsible for reviewing & approving research studies to ensure they’re ethical

Meta Analysis

Combining multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Falsifiable

A statement that can be tested & potentially proven false through experimentation

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases (r=-1 indicates a perfect negative relationship)

Scatterplot

A graph used in correlational research to display the relationship between two variables

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out, interpret, and remember information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence

Overconfidence Bias

When people have too much faith in their own judgements (thinking you know more than you actually do)

Effect Sizes

A statistical measure that shows how meaningful a result is, regardless of sample size.

• Ex: If two teaching methods both improve test scores, the one with a larger effect size produces a bigger actual difference in performance.

• Small effect size: the difference is real, but students only improved by an average of 1%

• Large effect size: the difference is real and big; students improved by an average of 15%

Bimodal Distribution

Two distinct peaks that occur on a graph suggesting two groups or phenomena within a dataset

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological perspective that emphasizes personal growth & freewill

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective that focuses on internal mental processes such as memory, thinking & problem-solving

Biological Perspective

A psychological perspective that explains behavior and mental processes through physiological factors such as the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach to psychology that explains behavior and mental processes as adaptations that evolved to increase survival and reproduction

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome is known, that it was predictable all along, even if the previous prediction was wrong. (“I knew it all along”)

Behavioral Perspective

An approach to psychology that explains behavior as learned through experience and interactions with the environment

Sociocultural Perspective

An approach to psychology that explains how culture, social norms, & social environments influence behavior

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An approach to psychology that explains behavior and mental processes as the result of biological, psychological, and social factors working together.

• Explaining anxiety by considering genetics (biological), thought patterns (psychological), and family or social stress (social).

Mental Processes

Everything happening inside a person’s head that isn’t visible from the outside

Behavior

Any observable action or response an individual makes (voluntary or involuntary)

Replication

The process of repeating a research study to determine if its findings are consistent

Peer Review

A process by which articles & studies are evaluated by experts before being published

Placebo Condition

Giving the placebo to a group of participants while the control group receives the actual treatment

Sample

A portion of individuals selected from a larger population as a whole

Representative Sample

A portion of individuals selected from a larger population in a way that accurately reflects its demographics

Random Sample

Choosing participants randomly from a larger group to ensure each participant has equal opportunity to be included

Sample Bias

When the sample isn’t representative of a larger population, leading to inaccurate or misleading results

Generalizability

The extent to which a research findings from samples can be applied to the larger population

Statistics

A series of tools & calculations to turn large amounts of data into meaningful information

Quantitative Data

Number-based info gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments

• Test scores, reaction times, or the number of hours students study per week

Qualitative Data

Information that describes qualities or experiences rather than numbers

• Interview responses about how a student feels about school or written descriptions of emotions

Structured Interviews

Interviews in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the same order

Wording Effect

Subtle changes in the wording of survey questions can influence a participant’s responses

Regression to the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual results to be followed by results that are closer to average

• After a student scores extremely high on one test, their next score is likely to be closer to their usual average

Normal Curve

A bell curve. The majority of data falls closest to the center (mean/median/mode)

Inferential Statistics

Using data from a sample to make predictions about a larger population

Experimental Group

The group of participants who are actually exposed to the independent variable

Psychodynamic Perspective

An approach to psychology that explains behavior and mental processes through unconscious thoughts, conflicts, and early childhood experiences

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher’s own expectations or beliefs about the outcome of an experiment influences its results

Single-Blind Study

When participants don’t know whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but researchers do

Double-Blind Study

When neither participants nor researchers know who belongs to the experimental or control group

Dependent Variable

The variable that’s measured for changes (y-axis)

Independent Variable

The variable that researchers deliberately manipulate (x-axis)

Social Desirability Bias

People’s tendency to respond in a manner that’s favorable to other or conform to social norms rather than provide honest answers/behaviors

Third Variable Problem

The possibility of a 3rd, unmeasured variable that may be influencing the relationship between the IV and DV

Likert Scales

A measurement tool in surveys used to asses people’s opinions using a scale from “Strongly Agree to Strongly Disagree”

Random Assignment

Randomly assigning participants to groups in an experiment to minimize bias

Confounding Variable

A variable that wasn’t accounted for or controlled, but still affects the results (experimental research ONLY)

Control Group

The participants who aren’t exposed to the IV. This group provides a baseline for the experimental group

Placebo Effect

A change in behavior or symptoms caused by a person’s belief that they are receiving a treatment, rather than the “treatment” itself actually having any real effect

Reliabilty

An experiment that produces consistent results when repeated under similar conditions

Survey Technique

A research method used to collect data through self-report measures

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical Measures used to summarize & describe characteristics of data sets

Deception

Purposefully misleading participants about the true nature of a study’s purpose procedures, or outcomes

Confederates

People who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team and act according to the researcher’s instructions

Intelligence

The ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, & adapt to new situations

General Intelligence

A single, underlying ability that influences performance across many different cognitive tasks

Multiple Intelligence

The theory that intelligence consists of several independent abilities rather than one single general ability

• A student struggles in math but excels in music or art, showing different types of intelligence

Intelligence Quotient

A number that measures a person’s cognitive abilities compared to others in their age group through standardized tests

Mental Age

The level of performance associated with a certain chronological age

Chronological Age

A person’s actual age!

Standardization

Establishing consistent testing procedures for giving & scoring tests

Validity

The extent to which a test or study measures what it claims to measure

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test or measure truly assesses the concept it is intended to measure

Predictive Validity

The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance or behavior

Reliability

Consistency in test results over time & among a variety of test takers

Test-Retest Reliability

The consistency of a test’s results when the same people take it more than once under the exact same conditions

Split-half Reliability

A measure of consistency where a test is split into two parts, and the scores on both halves are compared

Stereotype Threat

The risk of confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group, which can lower performance

Flynn Effect

Average IQ scores increase over generations

Aptitude Tests

A test designed to predict a person’s ability to learn or succeed in a specific area

Achievement Tests

A test that measures what a person has already learned or mastered

Stereotype Lift

Performance improvement that occurs when a negative stereotype about another group is highlighted, boosting one’s own confidence

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence is predetermined and cannot be changed

Growth Mindset

The belief that intelligence can be improved through effort