PE Mid-Year Exam

What is dorsiflexion?

Pulling the toes upward toward the shin.

e.g. Lifting your toes off the ground while keeping your heel down.

What is planter flexion?

Pointing the toes downward at the ankle.

e.g. Standing on your tiptoes.

What is Supination?

turning the forearm so the palm is up

e.g. holding a bowl of soup

What is pronation?

Rotating the forearm so the palm faces down.

e.g. Turning your hand palm-down, bouncing basketball

What is rotation?

Turning a bone around its long axis.

e.g. Turning your head from side to side.

what is Circumduction?

Moving a limb in a circular motion.

e.g. Making arm circles at the shoulder.

What is abduction?

Moving a body part away from the midline of the body.

e.g. Raising your arms out to the side.

What is adduction?

Moving a body part toward the midline of the body.

e.g. Bringing your arms back to your sides.

What is Extension?

Straightening a joint, increasing the angle between bones.

e.g. Straightening your arm after a bicep curl.

What is flexion?

Bending a joint, decreasing the angle between bones.

e.g. Bending your elbow during a bicep curl.

What is hinge joint?

Works like a door hinge.

e.g. Elbow, knee

Flexion and extension

What is ball and socket joint?

Rounded bone fits into a cup-shaped socket.

e.g. Shoulder, hip

Movement in all directions, including rotation

What is Pivot joint?

One bone rotates around another.

e.g. Neck

Rotation

What is a Saddle joint?

Bones have saddle-shaped surfaces that fit together.

E.g. Thumb

Movement in two planes

What is a gliding (Plane) joint?

Flat bone surfaces slide over each other.

E.g.. Between wrist bones, ankle bones

Small sliding movements

What is a Synovial joint?

Bones are separated by a fluid-filled cavity and allow free movement.

E.g. Knee, shoulder, hip

What is a Cartilaginous joint?

Bones are connected by cartilage and allow limited movement.

E.g. Between the vertebrae in the spine

What is a Fibrous joint?

Bones are connected by fibrous tissue and allow little or no movement.

E.g. Sutures in the skull

What is a Condyloid Joint?

Oval-shaped bone fits into an oval cavity.

E.g. Wrist

Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction

What is homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment, even when conditions inside or outside the body change.

Why is homeostasis important?

Homeostasis is important because it keeps the body's internal environment stable so cells can function properly.

What is the Left Ventricle responsible for?

actively pumps oxygen-rich blood through the aortic valve to the rest of the body

what are beta-blockers and why might athletes use them?

Drugs that reduce heart rate and anxiety by blocking adrenaline. Used in precision sports (archery, shooting) to steady aim; banned in those sports.

What is blood doping and its risks?

Transfusing extra red blood cells into an athlete to boost O2 carrying capacity. Risks: blood clotting, infection, heart failure. Banned by WADA.

What is EPO (erythropoietin) and why is it banned?

EPO is a hormone that stimulates RBC production, increasing O2 delivery to muscles. Synthetic EPO improves endurance but is banned — it thickens blood, increasing risk of stroke and death.

What is altitude training and how does it enhance performance?

lower O2 availability stimulates increased EPO production (Erythropoietin, a vital hormone produced naturally by the kidneys) and more RBCs. Athletes return to sea level with improved O2 carrying capacity.

How does physical activity enhance the cardiovascular and respiratory systems?

increases cardiac output, stroke volume, lung capacity, O2 extraction efficiency, capillary density in muscles and haemoglobin levels.

How do the cardiovascular and respiratory systems interrelate?

The respiratory system loads O2 into blood and removes CO2. The cardiovascular system transports oxygenated blood to working muscles and returns deoxygenated blood to the lungs — they are interdependent.

What is gaseous exchange at the capillary interface?

O2 diffuses from capillary blood (high) into muscle cells (low). CO2 diffuses from muscle cells (high) back into capillary blood (low) for transport back to the lungs

What is gaseous exchange at the alveoli?

Oxygen (O₂) moves from the alveoli into the blood because there is more oxygen in the alveoli than in the blood.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) moves from the blood into the alveoli because there is more carbon dioxide in the blood than in the alveoli.

Both gases move from an area of high concentration to low concentration.

Describe the mechanics for exhalation

The muscles relax, volume decreases, pressure rises then air pushed out.

Describe the mechanics of inhalation

The diaphragm and external intercostals contract, increasing thoracic volume, decreasing pressure then air rushes in.

What is the role of the alveoli?

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gaseous exchange occurs. Their large surface area, thin walls and rich capillary network enable efficient O2 and CO2 exchange.

Trace the pathway of air into the lungs

Nose and mouth → pharynx → larynx → trachea → left and right bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli.

What is hypertension?

Chronically elevated blood pressure (>=140/90 mmHg). A risk factor for heart disease, stroke and kidney damage; reduced by regular aerobic exercise, healthy diet and stress management.

What is coronary heart disease (CHD)?

A disease characterised by narrowing of the coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis, reducing oxygen supply to the heart muscle.

What is atherosclerosis?

A condition where fatty plaques (including cholesterol) build up inside arterial walls, narrowing and hardening the arteries, reducing blood flow and increasing risk of heart attack or stroke.

What is hypothermia?

A dangerously low core body temperature (below ~35°C), typically caused by cold exposure. Impairs muscular and neurological function.

What is hyperthermia?

Is a dangerously elevated core body temperature above normal range around 37°C, which can occur during intense exercise in hot/humid conditions and can cause heat stroke.

How does the cardiovascular system contribute to thermoregulation?

During exercise, vasodilation near skin increases heat loss. Sweating also helps. In cold conditions, vasoconstriction reduces heat loss from the skin.

What is vasoconstriction?

the narrowing of blood vessels, which occurs when the smooth muscles in the vessel walls tighten. This process restricts or decreases blood flow, raises blood pressure, and helps the body retain heat in cold environments or prevent excessive blood loss during injury. E.g. Hypothermia

What is vasodilation?

is the widening of blood vessels, which lowers blood pressure and increases blood flow to tissues. It is used naturally by the body to regulate temperature, deliver oxygen during exercise, and support healing

What is the role of Plasma in blood?

Plasma makes up 50% of your blood. It's role is to transports nutrients, hormones, CO2 and waste products.

What do White blood cells do?

protect the body from infections, and pathogens, destroying harmful invaders while aiding in tissue repair and overall healing

What do Red blood cells do?

carry oxygen via haemoglobin.

What are the components of blood and their functions?

Red blood cells carry oxygen via haemoglobin.

White blood cells is immune response.

Platelets stop clotting

Plasma transports nutrients, hormones, CO2 and waste products.

How does cardiac output change from rest to maximal exercise?

Both HR and SV increase, causing Q to rise from ~5 L/min at rest to up to 25 L/min during maximal exercise in trained athletes.

What is cardiac output (Q) and its formula?

Cardiac output = volume of blood pumped per minute.

Q = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV).

How to calculate max heart rate?

220-age

What is heart rate (HR) at rest vs exercise?

Resting HR around 55-80 bpm. During maximal exercise HR can reach 180-220 bpm. Trained athletes often have a lower resting HR due to cardiac adaptations.

What is stroke volume (SV)?

The volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat. At rest ~70 mL; increases during exercise due to greater venous return and stronger ventricular contraction.

What are the three types of blood vessels and their functions?

Arteries: carry blood away from heart under high pressure. Veins: return blood to heart, contain valves. Capillaries: site of gas/nutrient/waste exchange with tissues.

Trace the pathway of blood through the heart

Vena cava → right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary veins → left atrium → mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta → body

Describe the structure of the heart

4-chambered pump: two atria to receive blood and two ventricles that pump blood out. Left side handles oxygenated blood right side handles deoxygenated blood

What ethical considerations surround performance-enhancing substances?

Fairness (unfair advantage), health risks to athletes, coercion, role-modelling for youth, integrity of sport, and violation of the spirit of sport.

What is human growth hormone (HGH) and its use in sport?

HGH is produced by the pituitary gland and promotes growth, muscle development and fat metabolism. Athletes use synthetic HGH to increase muscle mass and reduce recovery time also is banned

What are anabolic steroids and their effects?

testosterone that increase muscle protein synthesis, leading to greater muscle mass and strength. Side effects include hormonal imbalances, liver damage and cardiovascular issues.

What is creatine supplementation and its proposed benefit?

Creatine increases phosphocreatine (PC) stores in muscle, improving energy availability for high-intensity, short-duration activities via the ATP-PC energy system.

What is the role of taping and bracing?

They restrict excessive joint range of motion, provide proprioceptive feedback, offer support to injured ligaments and reduce re-injury risk during return to sport.

What is the purpose of a cool-down?

To gradually lower heart rate, prevent blood pooling, begin waste product removal (lactic acid) and reduce delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS).

Why is a warm-up important for injury prevention?

It gradually increases heart rate, blood flow to muscles, muscle temperature and tissue extensibility — reducing the risk of strains, sprains and tears.

What physiological strategies prevent musculoskeletal injuries?

Physical preparation (progressive training load), adequate warm-up and cool-down, flexibility training, strength conditioning, correct technique, and appropriate rest/recovery.

Name three chronic musculoskeletal conditions

Tendinopathy (overuse of tendons), shin splints (medial tibial stress syndrome), bursitis (inflammation of fluid sacs near joints).

What is arthritis?

Inflammation of one or more joints. Osteoarthritis involves degradation of cartilage; rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune condition causing joint inflammation.

What is osteoporosis?

A condition of decreased bone mineral density making bones brittle and more prone to fracture; associated with low calcium, vitamin D deficiency, hormonal changes and inactivity.

What causes stress fractures?

Repetitive loading that exceeds the bone's ability to repair itself; common in distance runners and military recruits.

How is muscle force production controlled?

By varying the number of motor units recruited (recruitment) and by increasing the rate of firing of those units (rate coding/temporal summation).

What is an acute injury?

sudden onset, usually from a traumatic event (e.g. fracture, sprain, strain).

What is chronic injury?

develops gradually over time from repetitive stress (e.g. tendinopathy, stress fracture

What is the size principle of motor unit recruitment?

Smaller (slow twitch) motor units are recruited first at low force levels. As force demand increases, progressively larger (fast twitch) motor units are recruited.

What is the all-or-nothing principle?

When a motor unit is activated, all of its muscle fibres contract maximally — they cannot produce a partial contraction.

What is a motor unit?

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibres it innervates. When the motor neuron fires, all fibres in that unit contract simultaneously.

what is reciprocal inhibition?

When the agonist contracts, the antagonist is neurologically inhibited (relaxes), allowing smooth movement and preventing muscle tears.

What is a stabiliser (fixator)?

A muscle that contracts isometrically to stabilise a joint or body segment so the agonist can work more effectively (e.g. rotator cuff muscles stabilising the shoulder).

What is an antagonist?

The muscle that opposes the action of the agonist; it relaxes to allow the agonist to move the joint (e.g. triceps when biceps is the agonist).

What is an agonist (prime mover)?

The muscle primarily responsible for producing a movement (e.g. biceps brachii during elbow flexion).

What is a concentric contraction?

muscle shortens as it produces force (e.g. bicep curl upward).

Eccentric = muscle lengthens under tension/load (e.g. lowering a weight down slowly).

What is a eccentric contraction?

muscle lengthens under tension/load (e.g. lowering a weight down slowly).

What is an isokinetic muscle action?

The muscle contracts at a constant speed throughout the full range of motion; requires specialised isokinetic dynamometer equipment.

What is an isoinertial (isotonic) muscle action?

The muscle changes length against a constant external load. Includes concentric (shortening) and eccentric (lengthening) phases.

What is an isometric muscle action?

The muscle generates force but does not change length — the joint angle stays the same (e.g. holding a plank or a static squat).

What is fibre arrangement and how does it affect force production?

Parallel fibres (e.g. biceps) produce greater range of movement. Pennate fibres (e.g. deltoid) allow more fibres per area, producing greater force but less range of motion.

What are the three main types of muscle fibres?

Type I (slow twitch / oxidative) Long periods of time

Type II is divided into Type IIa (fast oxidative)

Type IIb generate high amounts of force and power quickly but fatigue rapidly

What are the characteristics of slow twitch (Type I) fibres?

Fatigue resistant, high mitochondrial density, high myoglobin (red colour), rely on aerobic metabolism, suited to endurance activities.

What are the characteristics of fast twitch (Type II) fibres?

Contract quickly and powerfully, fatigue quickly, fewer mitochondria, lower myoglobin (pale), rely on anaerobic metabolism, suited to power and sprint activities.

What is the primary action of the gastrocnemius?

plantarflexion of the ankle (also assists knee flexion).

What is the primary action of the quadriceps?

Extension of the knee joint. The rectus femoris also flexes the hip.

What is dorsiflexion?

pointing toes upward (decreasing ankle angle).

Plantarflexion = pointing toes downward (increasing ankle angle).

What is plantarflexion?

pointing toes downward (increasing ankle angle).

What is circumduction?

A circular movement that combines flexion, extension, abduction and adduction; the limb traces a cone shape.

What joint actions are possible at a ball-and-socket joint?

Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

What joint actions occur at a hinge joint?

Flexion and extension only (e.g. the knee and elbow).

Name six types of synovial joints

Ball-and-socket , hinge (knee), pivot (atlas/axis), condyloid (wrist), saddle (thumb), gliding/plane (carpals).

What are the three classifications of joints?

Fibrous (immovable), cartilaginous (slightly movable), and synovial (freely movable).

Name the 4 main classifications of bones

Long bones (e.g. femur), short bones (e.g. carpals), flat bones (e.g. skull), irregular bones (e.g. vertebrae).

Name four social/cultural/environmental barriers to movement

Family expectations, peer influence, socioeconomic status, level of education, cultural values, geographic location, and access to facilities.

What is the main functions of the musculoskeletal system?

To provide Support and Structure, Locomotion and Movement, Protection of Vital Organs, Blood Cell Production, Mineral and Energy Storage

What is the main functions of skeletal system?

To provide Support, Protection, movement, red cell production and mineral storage

What is the main functions of the muscular system?

To provide Mobility, Posture & Body Support, Heat Generation, Circulation, Digestion & Organ Function

What is the difference between physical activity, sport and exercise?

Physical activity = any body movement using energy. Sport = structured, competitive physical activity with rules. Exercise = planned, structured, repetitive physical activity done to improve fitness.