Time Periods and Key Figures

One Line Memorization for

• Classical Theory

• Positivist

• Sociological

• Labelling

• Classical: “You chose it.”

• Positivist: “Something caused it.”

  • Biological and psychological.

• Sociological: “Society pushed you into it.”

• Labelling: “The system made you it.”

Sociological + Labelling

Key Similarities

• Reject pure free will.

• Focus on external influences.

• See crime as produced, not simply chosen.

• Crime depends on social context.

• Emphasize power, inequality, and marginalization.

• Critical of the justice system.

Classical Theory Dates & Key Figures

Late 1700s (18th Century). Emerged during the Enlightenment period. Reaction against harsh, arbitrary punishments. Focus on free will, rational choice and deterrence.

• Key Figures: Cesare Beccaria, Jeremy Bentham

Biological & Psychological Theories Dates and Key Figures

Late 1800s – Early 1900s: Rise of scientific thinking and positivism (use of empirical data to explain things). Moving away from free will, to determinism

• Key Figures:

• Cesare Lombroso & William Sheldon (Biological Positivism)

• Sigmund Freud & Hans Eysenck (Psychological theory influence),

• August Comte (Positivism Influence)

Sociological Theories Time Period

Early 1900s – Present. Occurred during a period of rapid immigration, and urbanization. Related to growing cities and social inequality. Focus on the environment over individual problems.

Key Contributors:

• Robert K. Merton

• Emile Durkeim

• Chicago School of Sociology (University of Chicago).

Labelling Theory Time Period

1960s – 1970s. Happened during the Civil Rights movement, when there was also an apparent distrust of authority and systems. Shift toward examining power and social reaction.

• Key Figure: Howard Becker.

Which Theories Does Realist Approach Connect to?

How we Understand and Measure Crime - Dark Figure of Crime

Crime is real and measurable. We just have to improve how we measure it.

• Classical Theory.

• Biological and Psychological Theories (Posivitism)

• Related to some conservative political views (individual responsibility and equal treatment)

Which Theories Does Institutionalist Approach Connect to?

How we Understand and Measure Crime - Dark Figure of Crime

Crime can never really be fully measured, because institutions are biased and decide what constitutes a crime.

• Labelling Theory

• Sociological Theories

• Radical political paradigm

Which Theories Does Critical Approach Connect to?

How we Understand and Measure Crime - Dark Figure of Crime

Crime is real, but it is socially shaped. We must prevent harm and examine who is most policed (marginalized).

• Sociological theories (strain and social disorganization)

• Some Liberal political views

Theories that Align with Circle – Society as Harmonious

Geometric Models

Society work together, and is reflected in a harmonious viewpoint.

• Classical Theory

• Biological/Psychological

• Sociological Theory

• Conservative paradigm

Theories that Align with Meriocratic Triangle - Conflict and Inequality

Geometric Models

Power stays concentrated at the top, with inequality at the base. However, hard work can generate success and moving up the triangle.

• Often aligns with Conservative or Liberal views.

• Labelling Theory

Theories that Align with Critical Triangle - Conflict and Inequality

Geometric Models

Inequality and laws are unjust and only protect the powerful.

• Sociological conflict theories

• Labelling Theory

• Radical Political Paradigm

Theories that Align with the Rectangle / Square – Interconnected Institutions

Geometric Models

Focus on interconnected institutions through things such as family, education, economy, the justice system. Crime happens when institutions fail or weaken.

• Broader Sociological Theories (Strain Theory, Social Disorganization Theory, Ecological Theory)

• Liberal Political Paradigm

Theories that Align with the Non-Geometric Forms – Constructed Reality

Geometric Models

No fixed shape because reality is socially constructed. Crime defined through social interaction, symbolism and people’s perceived experiences.

• Labelling Theory (Symbolic Interactionism)

• Radical paradigm

Theories Aligned with the Conservative Paradigm

Political Paradigm

Focus is placed on individual responsibility and a corresponding punishment.

• Classical Theory

• Biological/Psychological Theories (Posivitism)

• Realist Approach (of crime measurement)

• Circle Geometric Political Orientation

• Meritocratic Triangle Political Orientation

Theories Aligned with the Liberal Paradigm

Political Paradigm

Focus is on reforming certain parts of an already existing system to reduce inequality. However, the whole system itself does not need to be reworked.

• Sociological Theories (Strain Theory and Social Disorganization)

• Critical Realist Approach to Crime Measurement

• Rectangle / Square Political Orientation

Theories Aligned with the Radical Paradigm

Political Paradigm

Restructuring of the entire system as it is plagues with power, capitalism and inequality.

• Labelling Theory

• Institutionalist Approach Measurement of Crime

• Critical Triangle Political Orientation

• Non-geometric Shape Political Orientation

Theories that Relate to the Individualist Approach

Three Broad Levels of Criminal Explanation

Crime happens because of individual traits or choices.

• Classical Theory

• Biological Theory (Positivism) & Psychological Theory (Positivism)

• Conservative Political Paradigm

• Realist Measurement of Crime

• Circle Geometric Orientation

Theories that Relate to the Situational Approach

Three Broad Levels of Criminal Explanation

Crime depends on the situation and interaction. Takes into account what is occurring at the time of the crime. Who is around, the event happening, external factors.

• Labelling Theory (Differential Association, Control Theory, Routine Activity Theory)

• Institutionalist Approach to Crime Measurement

• Liberal, sometimes radical political paradigm.

• Rectangle, or Non-geometric Shape Political Orientation

Theories that Relate to the Structural Approach

Three Broad Levels of Criminal Explanation

Crime is caused by social inequality and institutions.

• Sociological Theory (Strain Theory and Social Disorganization Theory)

• Labelling Theory

• Critical Realist Measurement of Crime

• Radical Political Paradigm

• Triangle Orientation