TOK 1 Terms

bias

any systematic deviation, lack of objectivity, or prejudice that influences how knowledge is perceived, evaluated, or produced

culture

the shared beliefs, values, practices, and traditions of a specific group that shape how knowledge is created, evaluated, and passed down

perspective

how individuals or groups interpret, evaluate, and shape knowledge based on their backgrounds, cultures, and experiences

expert

an individual who possesses an extensive and profound understanding of a specific discipline through education, experience, or rigorous training

certainty

the level of confidence or conviction we have in a knowledge claim, ranging from provisional to absolute

illusion of explanatory depth

a cognitive bias where people believe they understand complex concepts, mechanisms, or phenomena much better than they actually do

a priori

knowledge or justification that can be acquired through reason, logic, or pure thought alone, entirely independent of empirical observation or sensory experience

truth

how factual, accurate, or debatable a knowledge claim is

belief

Confidence in the truth or existence of something not immediately susceptible to rigorous proof / The knowledge claim is a matter of Conviction. We must own our knowledge.

information

raw, unprocessed facts, data, and observations

metacognitive

"thinking about thinking", is the awareness of your own knowledge and the ability to control and manipulate your cognitive processes

epistimology

the philosophical study of knowledge, "How do we know?" It investigates the nature, origin, scope, and justification of knowledge,

skepticism

the philosophical attitude of doubting knowledge claims, questioning absolute certainty, and requiring rigorous evidence

misinformation

false, inaccurate, or misleading information that is shared without the intent to deceive

disinformation

false or misleading information deliberately spread with the intent to deceive, manipulate, or cause harm

proof

a conclusive demonstration, using logical reasoning or empirical evidence, that a knowledge claim is valid

evidence

the factual information, data, or observations used to support, justify, or challenge a knowledge claim

justification

Justification requires Coherence with previous data and Clarity with regard to language and logic. There can be no Contradiction or strong Counter evidence. / the process of providing reasons, evidence, or arguments to support a knowledge claim

contestable

a claim, question, or concept is open to debate and lacks a single, definitive right answer

authority

the recognized right, expertise, or power to make decisions, validate claims, or define what counts as acceptable knowledge

authority worship

the uncritical and blind acceptance of claims made by figures of authority, experts, or dominant institutions, treating them as absolute truth without evaluating the evidence or reasoning behind them

relativism

the philosophical belief that there is no absolute, universal truth

dogmatisim

the unwavering adherence to a belief or set of principles without critical evaluation, openness to new evidence, or alternative perspectives

theory

a framework of concepts and ideas used to understand, explain, or justify how we know what we claim to know

correspondence theory of truth

a claim, belief, or statement is true if it accurately matches, reflects, or "corresponds" to objective reality or observable facts

coherance theory of truth

a claim is true if it is logically consistent with a broader, established system of beliefs

consensus theory of truth

a statement is considered true simply because a specific community or the majority of people generally agree upon it

pragmatic theory of truth

a belief or claim is true if it is useful, works in practice, and yields positive, verifiable results

pluralist theory of truth

there is no single definition or test for truth. Instead, the property that makes a statement true depends on the subject matter, or "domain of discourse"

redundancy theory of truth

stating a sentence is "true" adds zero new meaning or information, . Saying a statement is true means exactly the same thing as making the statement itself. For example, asserting that "'Snow is white' is true" simply means asserting "Snow is white."

interpretation

the process of assigning meaning to data, events, or experiences, bridges the gap between objective evidence and subjective understanding. It is heavily influenced by your perspective, culture, and prior knowledge

empiricism

the belief that all knowledge comes from sensory experience, argues that humans are born with a "blank slate" (or tabula rasa) and must gather evidence through seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling to understand the world

conspiracy theory

an explanation for a significant event or situation that relies on the existence of a secret, often sinister plot by a powerful group, directly rejecting mainstream consensus

propaganda

a deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior in order to further a specific agenda or ideology

implications

the broader consequences, "so what?" factors, or logical outcomes that follow from a specific claim, argument, or perspective, they answer the question: "If this knowledge is true, what does it mean for us, our understanding, or society?"

rationalism

the belief that reason is the primary, most reliable source of human knowledge, true knowledge is derived from the intellect and logical deduction rather than from sensory experience

deductive reasoning

a logical process where you apply accepted general premises to reach a strictly certain, specific conclusion, If the starting premises are true, the resulting conclusion is guaranteed to be true

logic

the formal system of reasoning and the study of valid inference, helps us evaluate arguments, test for validity, and structure our thoughts to arrive at justified, rational conclusions

premise

a foundational statement or assumption used as evidence to support a conclusion, it serves as a building block for an argument; if you accept the premises as true, you are logically led to accept the conclusion

valid

an argument is valid if and only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for the premises to be true, It is not required for a valid argument to have premises that are actually true

invalid

An argument is invalid when its logical structure fails to guarantee the conclusion, meaning the premises can be true while the conclusion is still false

sound

An argument is logically sound if and only if (a) it is valid, and (b) all of its premises are factually true in the real world.

inductive reasoning

a method of drawing general conclusions based on specific observations or evidence

problem of induction

a philosophical challenge about how we justify making general predictions or universal claims based solely on past observations

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms your preexisting beliefs

fallacy

a fundamental error in reasoning that undermines the logic of an argument

post hoc ergo propter hoc

one assumes that just because event B happened after event A, event A must have caused event B

strawman

someone distorts, oversimplifies, or exaggerates an opponent's argument to make it absurd and easier to knock down

genetic

the error of judging a claim or argument as true or false based solely on its origin or history, rather than on its actual content

suppressed evidence

intentionally omitting crucial, relevant information that contradicts or weakens your own knowledge claim.

circular reasoning

logical fallacy where the reasoner begins an argument with the exact conclusion they are trying to prove, "A is true because of B, and B is true because of A"

false dilemma

logical fallacy that misrepresents an issue by presenting only two extreme options as the only available choices, ignoring all other possibilities, middle grounds, or nuances

special pleading

logical fallacy where someone applies a general rule to others but claims an unjustified exemption for themselves or their own beliefs

echo chamber

closed epistemic environment where an individual's existing beliefs are continuously reinforced, while opposing views are systematically discredited or dismissed.

knowledge community

a group of individuals who share, evaluate, and produce knowledge based on common values, norms, methodologies, and practices

expertise

mastery of a specific domain, characterized not just by possessing factual knowledge, but by the ability to apply it, evaluate new evidence, and make reliable judgments within a field

when should we trust experts?

addresses the limits of epistemic autonomy (thinking entirely for yourself) versus epistemic dependence (relying on others). Because no individual can master every subject, we often must rely on the testimony of experts to expand our knowledge base.

knowledge claim

an assertion that you or someone else believes to be true. It is a statement that you "know" something

knowledge question

an open-ended, second-order question about knowledge itself, asks how and why we know it, how it is justified, and how reliable that knowledge is

paradigm

an overarching worldview or philosophical framework, dictates what we consider "truth," which methods are valid for acquiring knowledge, and what questions are worth asking in a specific field

data

the raw, unprocessed "givens" of experience, isolated facts, sensory inputs, or observations that lack meaning, context, or interpretation on their own

ambiguity

a situation, statement, or piece of evidence that can be interpreted in multiple plausible ways, usually because of insufficient context or vague language

grammar

system of rules that governs how a natural language is structured and used, as evidenced by its speakers or writers

connotation

the cultural, emotional, or ideological associations that a word, image, or symbol carries

linguistic determinism

the strong, controversial idea that the structure and vocabulary of your native language strictly limits and entirely dictates the way you think and perceive reality, you cannot conceive of concepts that your language lack

algorithm

distinct, rule-based method of acquiring knowledge. It is a finite sequence of well-defined, step-by-step instructions designed to solve a problem, process data, or reach a conclusion

objectivity

a claim or truth is independent of an individual's personal biases, emotions, or subjective perspectives,knowledge corresponds to observable facts and reality, making it verifiable and universally compelling to any rational observer

subjectivity

how an individual's unique personal background, emotions, biases, and sensory experiences shape their interpretation of reality, knowledge we possess is intrinsically tied to the "subject" (the individual) doing the knowing, rather than being an independent, mind-independent truth

ethics

how we justify moral judgments, the reliability of moral knowledge, and the ethical responsibilities involved in acquiring, producing, and sharing knowledge

morality

the systems of values, principles, and judgments used to determine right and wrong

virtue ethics

place one's virtue and character at the center of ethical inquiry. instead of evaluating isolated facts or moral rules, it evaluates the intellectual character and motivations of the individual

deontological ethics

a rule-based moral theory. It argues that the rightness or wrongness of an action depends on whether it follows inherent duties and universal rules, regardless of the consequences

moral absolutism

the belief that certain moral principles are universally true, intrinsically right or wrong, and apply to all people at all times—regardless of context, culture, or consequence

utilitarianism

a normative ethical framework that defines right and wrong based on outcomes, most ethical action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people

post-truth

an epistemic condition where objective facts are less influential in shaping public opinion or individual belief than appeals to emotion and personal conviction.