AP Psych Unit 2 Terms

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing that begins with sensory information entering the brain and builds upward to create perception.

Example: seeing separate lines and colors before recognizing a face

Top-Down Processing

Processing guided by expectations, prior knowledge, and experiences.

Example: reading messy handwriting because you understand the sentence context

Schema

Mental framework or organized pattern of knowledge used to interpret information. Example: knowing what usually happens at a restaurant

Perceptual Set

Tendency to perceive something in a certain way because of expectations or experiences

Gestalt Psychology

Psychological approach emphasizing that people naturally organize sensory information into meaningful wholes rather than separate parts

Closure

Tendency to mentally fill in missing parts of an incomplete image to see a complete object

Figure and Ground

Organizing visual information into an object that stands out (figure) and the background behind it (ground)

Proximity

Tendency to group objects that are close together

Similarity

Tendency to group objects that look alike in color, shape, or size

Attention

Process of focusing awareness on certain stimuli while ignoring others

Selective Attention

Focusing on one specific stimulus while filtering out competing information.

Example: listening to a teacher while ignoring hallway noise

Cocktail Party Effect

Ability to notice personally important information, like your name, even while focusing on something else

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice visible objects because attention is directed elsewhere

Change Blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment, especially when attention is distracted

Binocular Depth Cues

Depth cues requiring both eyes to judge distance and depth

Retinal Disparity

Difference between the images seen by each eye; the brain uses this difference to perceive depth

Convergence

Inward turning of the eyes when focusing on nearby objects; greater turning indicates closer distance

Monocular Depth Cues

Depth cues that can be perceived with one eye alone

Relative Clarity

Objects that appear clearer are usually perceived as closer

Relative Size

Smaller-looking objects are perceived as farther away if actual size is assumed equal

Texture Gradient

Gradual change from coarse to fine texture signals increasing distance

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines appear to move closer together as distance increases

Interposition

When one object blocks another, the blocking object is perceived as closer

Apparent Movement

Illusion of movement created when still images are shown rapidly in sequence, like movies or animations

Color Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color despite changes in lighting

Size Constancy

Perceiving objects as remaining the same size even when distance changes retinal image size

Shape Constancy

Perceiving familiar objects as maintaining the same shape despite changes in viewing angle

Prototypes

Mental images or best examples of a category. Example: a robin may be a prototype for "bird."

Schemas

Organized mental frameworks that help people interpret and organize information based on past experiences

Assimilation

Interpreting new information using existing schemas. Example: calling a zebra a horse because it fits an existing "horse" schema

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating schemas when new information does not fit existing ones.

Example: learning that zebras are different from horses

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution if followed properly. Example: using a math formula

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that speed up problem-solving and decision-making but may lead to errors

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging probability based on how much something matches a prototype or stereotype

Availability Heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Example: fearing plane crashes after hearing news stories about them

Mental Set

Tendency to approach problems using methods that worked in the past, even if better solutions exist

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influencing response to another stimulus, often unconsciously

Framing

The way information is presented influences decisions and judgments

Gambler's Fallacy

False belief that past random events affect future random events.

Example: thinking heads is "due" after many tails in a row

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing something because of already invested time, money, or effort, even when stopping would be better

Executive Functions

Mental skills involved in planning, attention, organization, self-control, and decision-making

Creativity

Ability to produce original and valuable ideas or solutions

Divergent Thinking

Type of thinking that generates many possible ideas or solutions. Often linked to creativity

Convergent Thinking

Type of thinking focused on finding one correct answer or solution

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar objects. Example: only seeing a paperclip as something for holding papers together

Storage

The process of keeping information in memory over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into awareness

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled. Example: remembering a birthday party

Episodic Memory

Type of explicit memory involving personal experiences and specific events

Semantic Memory

Type of explicit memory involving facts, concepts, and general knowledge. Example: knowing Paris is the capital of France

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness

Procedural Memory

Type of implicit memory involving skills and actions. Example: riding a bike

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform actions in the future. Example: remembering to submit homework later

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Lasting strengthening of neural connections after repeated stimulation, believed to help form memories

Working Memory Model

Model explaining how short-term information is temporarily stored and actively manipulated

Primary Memory System

System responsible for holding information currently being used or attended to

Working Memory

Active mental system used to hold and process information temporarily.

Example: doing math in your head

Central Executive

Part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates other memory systems

Phonological Loop

Part of working memory that temporarily stores verbal and auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Part of working memory that temporarily stores visual and spatial information

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and limitless storage of information

Multi-Store Model

Model stating memory moves through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of incoming sensory information

Iconic Memory

Brief visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second

Echoic Memory

Brief auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds

Automatic Processing

Encoding information without conscious effort. Example: remembering the meaning of common words

Effortful Processing

Encoding information through attention and conscious effort.

Example: studying vocabulary terms

Encoding

Process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory

Levels of Processing Model

Theory stating deeper processing leads to stronger and longer-lasting memories

Shallow Encoding

Encoding based on basic features such as appearance or sound

Deep Encoding

Encoding based on meaning, understanding, and connections, leading to better memory retention

Structural Encoding

Encoding based on physical appearance or structure of information

Phonemic Encoding

Encoding based on the sound of information

Semantic Encoding

Encoding based on meaning and understanding, usually producing the strongest memories

Mnemonic Devices

Memory techniques that use associations, patterns, or imagery to improve recall.

Example: acronyms like "HOMES" for the Great Lakes

Method of Loci

Mnemonic technique involving mentally placing information in familiar locations and recalling it by visualizing those places

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful groups to make it easier to remember.

Example: remembering a phone number in sections

Categories (Grouping)

Organizing information into related groups to improve memory and understanding

Hierarchies (Grouping)

Organizing information from broad categories to more specific details

Spacing Effect

Tendency for distributed study sessions over time to improve long-term memory more than cramming

Memory Consolidation

Process in which memories become more stable and long-lasting after encoding

Massed Practice

Studying large amounts of information in one long session, often called cramming

Distributed Practice

Studying information across multiple shorter sessions over time, which improves retention

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle items

Primacy Effect

Better memory for items presented at the beginning of a list because they are rehearsed more

Recency Effect

Better memory for the most recently presented items because they are still in short-term memory

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information lasting only moments after a stimulus is detected

Short-Term Memory

Temporary memory system that briefly holds small amounts of information before it is forgotten or transferred to long-term memory

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory.

Example: repeating a phone number until dialing it

Elaborative Rehearsal

Linking new information to meaning, prior knowledge, or personal experiences to improve long-term storage

Memory Retention

Ability to keep and preserve information over time

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life events and experiences

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before an injury or traumatic event

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after brain injury or trauma

Alzheimer's Disease

Progressive brain disorder causing memory loss, confusion, and decline in thinking abilities

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to remember most experiences from early childhood, usually before age 3 or 4

Recall

Retrieving information from memory with little or no external cues.

Example: answering an FRQ from memory

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when it is presented.

Example: choosing the correct answer on a multiple-choice test

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli or hints that help trigger memories.

Example: a song reminding you of a past event

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved memory retrieval when a person is in the same environment where the memory was formed