AP Psychology Unit 0

Overview of Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes; explores how people think, feel, and act.

Behavioral Approach

Focuses on how we learn observable responses and behaviors.

Biological Approach

Studies how the brain, body, genes, and nervous system influence behavior and mental processes.

Cognitive Approach

Focuses on how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.

Evolutionary Approach

Examines how natural selection and survival of genes influence behavior.

Humanistic Approach

Emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-fulfillment.

Psychodynamic Approach

Studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior.

Social-Cultural Approach

Explores how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Combines biological, psychological, and social influences on behavior and mental processes.

Clinical Psychologists

Diagnose and treat mental disorders.

Cognitive Psychologists

Study mental processes like memory, perception, and problem-solving.

Developmental Psychologists

Study psychological growth and changes across the lifespan.

Social Psychologists

Study how people influence and are influenced by others.

Industrial-Organizational Psychologists

Apply psychology to workplace productivity and employee well-being.

Personality Psychologists

Study consistent personality traits and behaviors.

Human Factors Psychologists

Study interactions between people, machines, and environments.

Counseling Psychologists

Help people cope with life challenges and improve functioning.

Community Psychologists

Work to create healthy social and physical environments.

Experimental Psychologists

Conduct experiments to study behavior and mental processes.

Quantitative/Psychometric Psychologists

Use math and statistics to study psychological principles.

Sports Psychologists

Work with athletes to improve performance and mental health.

Health Psychologists

Study how psychological factors affect physical health and wellness.

Rehabilitation Psychologists

Help people regain functioning after injury or trauma.

Educational Psychologists

Study learning and development in educational settings.

School Psychologists

Assess and support students in schools or districts.

Neuropsychologists

Study and treat neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Scientific Method

A systematic, self-correcting process used to test hypotheses and build theories through observation and analysis.

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Operational Definition

A clear, precise explanation of procedures and concepts so research can be replicated.

Ethics in Psychology

Rules protecting human and animal subjects in research.

Informed Consent

Participants must understand the study and voluntarily agree to participate.

Right to Withdraw

Participants can leave a study at any time without penalty.

Confidentiality

Researchers must keep participant data private.

Anonymity

Participant identities are not connected to their data.

Protection from Harm

Researchers must minimize physical and emotional risks.

Debriefing

Researchers explain the true purpose of the study after participation.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

A committee that reviews studies for ethical concerns.

Deception

Misleading participants only when necessary and not harmful.

Experimental Research

Research method that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome affected by the independent variable.

Experimental Group

The group receiving the treatment or independent variable.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment; used for comparison.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to groups by chance to reduce confounding variables.

Confounding Variables

Outside factors that may unintentionally affect results.

Descriptive Research

Research that describes behavior without explaining cause and effect.

Case Study

An in-depth study of one person or a small group.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in a natural setting without interference.

Survey

Collecting self-reported information from participants.

Correlational Study

Research measuring the relationship between variables without proving causation.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number from -1.0 to +1.0 showing the strength and direction of a relationship.

Positive Correlation

As one variable increases, the other also increases.

Negative Correlation

As one variable increases, the other decreases.

Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other.

Cross-Sectional Study

Compares groups at a single point in time.

Placebo Effect

Improvement caused by expectations rather than the treatment itself.

Single-Blind Study

Participants do not know if they receive the treatment or placebo, but researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment or placebo.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement or test.

Test-Retest Reliability

A test produces similar results when repeated.

Split-Half Reliability

Consistency between two halves of the same test.

Inter-Rater Reliability

Consistency between different observers or scorers.

Validity

The accuracy of a test or measurement.

Predictive Validity

How well a test predicts future outcomes.

Content Validity

How well a test covers the entire subject area.

Construct Validity

How accurately a test measures an abstract concept.

Descriptive Statistics

Methods used to organize and summarize data.

Inferential Statistics

Methods used to determine if findings apply to a larger population.

Mean

The arithmetic average of scores.

Median

The middle score in an ordered set of data.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

Measures how spread out scores are from the mean.

High Standard Deviation

Data is widely spread out from the mean.

Low Standard Deviation

Data is closely clustered around the mean.

Normal Distribution

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve where most scores are near the mean.

68-95-99.7 Rule

68% of data falls within 1 SD, 95% within 2 SDs, and 99.7% within 3 SDs.

Positively Skewed Distribution

Tail extends right; mean is greater than median.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

Tail extends left; mean is less than median.

Statistical Significance

Results are unlikely due to chance.

p-value

The probability that results occurred by chance under the null hypothesis.

p < 0.05

Usually considered statistically significant.

Null Hypothesis

States that the independent variable has no effect.

Alternative Hypothesis

States that the independent variable does affect results.

Nominal Scale

Categorizes data without order.

Ordinal Scale

Ranks data in order.

Interval Scale

Equal intervals without a true zero.

Ratio Scale

Equal intervals with a true zero.

Z-Score

Shows how many standard deviations a score is from the mean.

Z = 0

The score is exactly at the mean.

Z = +1

The score is one standard deviation above the mean.

Z = -1

The score is one standard deviation below the mean.

Variance

Measures how spread out data points are.

Frequency Histogram

A bar graph showing how often scores occur.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Debate over whether behavior is influenced more by genetics or environment.