Sociology Works- Main Ideas

Harari- An Animal of No Significance

• Homo Sapiens are ordinary

• Groups were small, simple

• Humans did not dominate nature

• Social organization has evolved because of technology and culture

Miner- Nacirema

• America’s cultural practices can seem strange when defined by an outsider’s perspective

• Ethnocentrism- judging other cultures by your own standard

• Practices/rituals are culturally constructed

• what seems normal is relative - culture shapes how we see behaviors

Mills - Promise of Sociology

• sociology helps understand the link between individual experiences (troubles) and larger social forces (public issues)

• Sociological Imagination- ability to see how personal life is shaped by society and social structure

• puts less blame on individuals

• personal experiences are shaped by larger issues

Simmel - Metropolis and Mental Life

• city life makes people more mentally rational, impersonal, and emotionally detached

• Blase Attitude- become emotionally detached to cope with constantly being overwhelmed by stimuli/sensory overload

• urban life encourages freedom and individuality (less intimate)

• also creates impersonal social interaction and weakens bond

Ritzer - “McDonalidization”

• modern society has become increasingly organized

• efficiency- choosing easiest/quickest way

• calculability- quantity over quality

• predictability- standardization

• control- over people and processes (through technology)

• more convenient and accessible, but causes dehumanization and homogenization

Coleman - Assymetric Society

• society has unequal distribution of power, resources, and opportunities

• affects social behavior and relationships

• hierarchy; some people have advantages over others

• unequal access affects education, employment, and how people behave in social systems

• choices constrained by social structures

Elias - Society of Individuals

• social structure shapes individual behavior; individual actions shape society

• social norms guide behavior- we regulate what we do to fit norms

Cooley - Looking Glass Self

• self concept is shaped by how we believe others percieve us

• that is how we develop sense of self

• identity is socially constructed through social interactions

• we imagine how people see us, what they think of us, and develop feelings about ourselves based on that

• self is influenced by society and our relationships

Mead - The Self, I, and Me

• identity is socially constructed, formed by internalizing society’s expectations

• “I” - creative, unpredictable aspect of self

• “Me” - socialized aspect, reflects norms and attitudes of others

• understanding the perspectives of others is important for developing the “me”

• self develops through social interaction, balance of “I” and “me”

Dubois - Souls of Black Folks

• African Americans have double consciousness - sees themselves through their own perspective and through society that discriminates against them

• leads to tension, self-doubt, and struggle for true sense of self

• racism psychologically affects individuals

• social structure and prejudice shapes the identity and social experience

Lareau - Unequal Childhoods

• children’s life outcomes shaped by social class through differences in parenting styles, resources, and opportunities

• middle class uses concerted cultivation- structured activities, reasoning, negotiation with authorities

• working class uses accomplishment of natural growth- more free time, learn independently'

• middle class gains skills/confidence that are better for school/industry- gives an advantage

Chambliss - Saints and Roughnecks

• social class shapes how society perceives and treats youth

• leads to differences in labeling, opportunities, and life outcomes

• Saints had fewer consequences than Roughnecks

• society treats people differently based on class and reputation

• different opportunities because middle class has protection and privilege

Goffman - Presentation of Self in Everyday Life

• social life is a performance

• we manage how we present ourselves to others to maintain impressions and social roles

• individuals perform roles in social interactions to maintain order and identity

• we control how others see us, want to match social expectations

• society and identity are constructed through everyday interactions

Hochschild - Emotion Work, Feeling Rules, and Social Structure

• society shapes our emotions - we manage emotions to fit societal norms

• “feeling rules”- guide what emotions are appropriate

• emotion work- effort to make emotions meet societal expectations, acting

• power, norms, institutions shape emotions

• emotions are learned, managed, and constrained by society

Rosenhan - On Being Sane in Insane Places

• being labelled as “mentally ill” affects how individuals are perceived and treated

• once labelled, all behaviors are interpreted through a lens- stigma

• labels override actual behavior

• labels lead to dehumanization and stigma

• labels affect identity

• sane and insane aren’t real- based on cultural/societal context

Anderson- Code of the Streets

• in disadvantaged neighborhoods informal rules govern behavior

• emphasis on respect, toughness, self-protection - shapes social interactions

• “Decents” try to have mainstream values but have to navigate the street code

• violations of respect lead to violence

• social environment shapes behavior and norms

• poverty and inequality creates alternate social systems

Goffman - Stigma and Social Identity

• people with stigmatized traits are devalued; stigma shapes their identity and interactions

• individuals develop strategies to cope, hide, or manage stigma in social life

• stigma- physical, character blemishes, tribal (race, ethnicity, religion)

• stigmatized face rejection, discrimination, stereotype

• show how society construes “normality” and “deviance”

Matza/Sykes - Techniques of Neutralization

• delinquents aren’t committed to a different moral code- they “neutralize”/justify their deviant behavior to break rules without guilt

• know societal rules are valid, they use excuses to go in and out of deviance

• 1) Denial of Responsibility- blames forces outside themselves

• 2) Denial of Injury- minimizes harm

• 3) Denial of Victim- claims victim “had it coming”

• 4) Condemnation of Condemners- shifts blame to authority figures

• 5) Appeal to Higher Loyalty- loyalty to peers overrides societal rules

Loewen - Land of Opportunity

• textbooks promote the American Dream; downplay or ignore social class

• will talk about race and gender, but afraid to talk about class

• US portrayed as uniquely mobile, but reality is wealth is inherited and social mobility is linked

• not anyone can rise from poverty through hard work and good character

• this prevents students from understanding inequality; encourages blaming individuals and not the system

• reinforces poverty = personal failure

Ehrenreich - Nickel and Dimed

• impossible to survive on low-wage work

• “anyone who works hard can get by” is a myth

• rent consumes most of income, need multiple jobs, no path to stability

• the “system” keeps people poor, not laziness

• jobs are mentally and physically exhausting; treated inhumanely

Desmond - Unaffordable America

• housing crisis is a driver of poverty

• eviction is not a symptom of poverty, it’s the cause of it

• without stable, affordable housing, it’s impossible to escape poverty

• eviction leads to job loss, school disruption, mental health problems; makes families poorer

• shifts focus from individual to structural inequality

Brooks - Bobo’s in Paradise

• new American upper class blends 1960’s radical “bohemian” values with 1980’s (bourgeois) ambition - basically just education

• today’s elite values creativity, individuality, authenticity while also valuing career success, wealth, and productivity

• emphasis on merit and education; success is earned not inherited

Feagin - Racist America

• racism is ongoing, not historical; embedded in present day systems

• major institutions maintain racial hierarchy (w/o racist intent)

• dominant worldview of white advantage- makes systemic inequality “natural”

• ideas of “racism being over”/ “minorities exaggerate racism” hide ongoing inequality

• racism is sytemic, historical that shapes institutions and everyday interactions. To understand racism have to look beyond individuals to larger social structure

Omi/Winant - Racial Formation in the US

• race is not a scientific or biological fact- it’s created and shaped by society

• Racial Formation- racial categories are created, transformed, destroyed

• society is organized along racial lines; these lines are always evolving

• Racial Project- an effort that interprets racial meaning (stereotypes, media)

• Race is structural (institutions, laws, economy), also cultural (stereotype/image)

• race is redefined through struggles, different groups shape how race affects society

• Race is continuously made/remade through social/political conflict- race organizes power/inequality in society

Pager - Mark of a Criminal Record

• having a criminal (especially while Black) creates major barriers to employment- race and criminal justice system combines to produce inequality

• had identical applications except different race and criminal records

• w/ record- half has likely to get callback (strong negative signal)

• race mattered just as much-sometimes more- white criminals often did better than Blacks without a record

• Black men experience racial discrimination and stigma of incarceration- double disadvantage for employment and economic mobility

• hiring decisions based on racial bias/stigma reinforces systemic inequality

Portes/Zhou - New Second Generation: Segmented Assimilation

• children of immigrants do not assimilate the same way- depends on social conditions

• Segmented Assimilation- not one path into “mainstream” (white, middle-class) society- shaped by environment and opportunity

• 1) Upward Assimilation- immigrant children get education/economic success- integrate into middle class

• 2) Downward Assimilation- assimilate into disadvantaged urban communities- face poverty, discrimination

• 3) Selective Acculturation- strong ties to cultural background while succeeding economically- community support protects them

• family resources (education), community support (ethnic network), gov policies - play role in outcome

• darker-skinned face greater barriers- risk for downward assimilation

• used to assume immigrants would integrate into white, middle-class; actually more complex

Waters - Optional Ethnicities

• for White Americans- ethnicity is optional, flexible, symbolic; can chose whether/how to express identity; it’s voluntary, situational (holidays, food, traditions)- doesn’t affect daily experiences/life outcomes

• for people of color- it’s fixed, consequential; identity is not optional, assigned by society, affects treatment and life outcomes

• Whiteness is a shared racial privilege- ability to “choose” ethnicity is a privilege

Anderson - Woman Falls to Death, AP Implies She Deserved It

• media coverage can subtly reinforce racial/class/gender bias by framing marginalized victims as responsible for their own suffering

• suggests woman was at fault- shifts reader’s perception to implied personal responsibility

• Connection to Code of the Streets- shaped by structural conditions, not personal choice

• pattern in media- marginalized victims portrayed as complicit, structural issues are minimized/ignored

• influence public opinion by justifying inequality and obscuring systemic causes

Lorber- Social Construction of Gender

• gender is not a biological fact, but a socially constructed system that organizes everyday life and power relations

• gender built into social structure, shapes societal expectations for how people should act

• gender is something people actively perform in everyday interactions (clothing, behavior, roles)- reinforces gender norms

• gender organizes power, resources, authority

• “gender” feels natural because it’s reinforced in daily life- institutions make it seem inevitable

Connell - Hegemonic Masculinity

• masculinity is a hierarchical system- the dominant form (hegemonic) legitimizes men’s power over women and other men

• Hegemonic Masculinity- cultural idea of masculinity in society (has authority, heterosexual, physically/emotionally tough, control)- not most common but most socially valued

• Complicit- benefits from system but doesn’t embody it; Subordinate- stigmatized (gay); Marginalized- race/class disadvantaged

• masculinity determines power relations

• it’s learned and enforced socially; institutions reinforce it

• social/cultural shifts can challenge/reshape modern hegemonic masculinity

Coontz - American Families in the 1950’s

• the “traditional family” in the 1950’s is a mythical ideal=- not an accurate reflection

• on TV- families were white, middle-class, male breadwinner; in reality- women worked, working-class, family instability

• “nuclear family”- post WW2, short-lived; depended on specific economic conditions (strong male wages, didn’t need women to participate in labor force)

• reinforced gender roles; men=providers, women=homemakers

Cherlin - Labors Love Lost

• American families have transformed from stable “family first” system to be more individualized because of economic insecurity and changing cultural expectations

• family “breadwinner” model weakened due to de-industrialization and decreased wages

• family structure more unstable/diverse- high divorce rates, delayed marriage, cohabitation, single-parent households; economic inequality driving differences

• marriage no longer basic expectation- now a class-based achievement

Hochschild - Understanding Future of Fatherhood

• fatherhood is reshaped by social and economic changes- there’s a gap between new expectations regarding caregiving involvement and old workplace structures

• modern norms means father’s are emotionally involved, equal partners with childcare- conflicts with workplace demands

• face slower institutional change: men encouraged to be involved fathers but discouraged form reducing work

• men’s participation is still unequal- still some stigma with childcare

• gap between modern ideals of fatherhood and what they actually do

Clegg/Usmani - Racial Politics of Mass Incarceration

• primary driver is political economy- inequality is largely channelled through class structure

• race matters- but through political economy and class structure lens

• no single cause for “racial caste”

• prison growth because of capitalism, surplus labor, state management of marginality

Western/Pettit - Incarceration and Social Inequality

• mass incarceration is a major driver of social inequality that limits life chances, specifically for Black, low-income men

• incarceration creates and deepens inequality- criminal record reduces access to employment, education, housing, voting

• data underestimates disadvantage because incarcerated people aren’t included

• incarceration has lasting consequences with employment/weakens family structure as children/community also affected

• Loop- poverty/inequality increase likelihood of incarceration- incarceration then deepens inequality, especially in Black/poor communities; deepen disparities like employment, income, family stability

Conrad - Medicalization and Social Control

• human behaviors and conditions are increasingly defined as medical problems- functions as social control as authority shifts to medical profession

• Medicalization- non-medical issues become defined and treated as medical conditions (addiction, ADHD, anxiety)

• Expansion of Medical Authority- medicine gains authority; replaces religion/law

• labelling behaviors as “medical” allows society to regulate behaviors and frame social problems as individual issues

• behaviors once seen as deviance are now illness- changes how people are treated

Farmer - On Suffering and Structural Violence

• much of human suffering is not random, but the result of structural violence (social, economic, political systems that disadvantage certain groups_

• Structural Violence- harm from social structures; ex: poverty, healthcare access, racism/discrimination, lack of education/resources; disease outcomes linked to social conditions (preventable, access to care/resources)

• Structural violence is hidden because normalized

Williams/Sternthal - Understanding Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health

• health disparities driven by social, economic, environmental qualities; not biological differences, because of systemic racism and unequal living conditions

• no biological difference explains health gaps- race reflects unequal exposure to social conditions that affect health

• unequal access to education, safe housing, employment, healthcare, accesible healthy food/gym

• racism is institutional (healthcare access), interpersonal (discrimination in doctor’s office), and internalized (stress from discrimination)

• to reduce disparities, have to address social issues

Ehrenreich - “Bright-Sided”

• enforced optimism can distort reality, discourage critical thinking, worsen social/economic problems

• America has a cultural obsession with positivity that can discourage realism and blame assign individuals

• companies use positive thinking to suppress complaints- not question unfair systmes

• people think they can “think their way” out of problems- shifts responsibility away from societal institutions to individual blame

• excessive optimism leads to risky decisions

• enforced positivity leads to denial of legitimate emotions

Kolbert - Why Work?

• work is not just an economic necessity, but how people define their purpose/values

• work is tied to self-worth

• the idea of “work as a moral good” is recent- work used be seen as necessary, not fulfilling

• questions about social structure as technology makes work automated; what will happen to self identity when work disappears

• Protestant Ethic- modern attitudes towards work is shaped by Protestant religious values- hard work is moral duty, discipline is a virtue- idleness is morally suspect

Kreider - The ‘Busy Trap’

• “busyness” is a socially rewarded illusion of modern life- people fill schedules because busy makes them feel important/valued

• busyness if often a choice- many commitments are self-imposed/socially reinforced

• being “busy” is a status symbol

• people need to fill every moment to avoid deeper questions about meaning

• idleness is essential, but culturally devalued

• busyness is not a sign of a meaningful life, but way to avoid deeper questions about life

Rothman - What College Can’t Do

• college is overstated in what it can realistically achieve - especially when solving broader social problems

• can’t compensate for inequalities

• society treats college as a place that will automatically produce success and purpose; unrealistic

• college called “great equalizer” but different support systems will continue to support life outcomes

• personal growth depends on extended circumstances, not just the institution

• colleges blamed for problems that are actually broader social issues