Topic C - Biology

Rf

What do catalysts do and how?

Increases the rate of the reaction by reducing the activation energy (the energy required to start a reaction)

Enzyme

Protein based biological catalyst. Globular, soluble, folds to a specific shape

Anabolic vs catabolic reactions

Anabolic - uses condensation reactions, uses energy, builds up molecules. An example is photosynthesis

Catabolic - uses hydrolyses, releases energy, breaks down molecules. An example is cell respiration

Induced fit model

Proteins are not a perfect fit for the substrate, rather, the active site changes slightly (conformational change) to fit it

What are substrates and active sites?

The substrate is what bonds to the enzyme, and the active site is the area on the enzyme where it bonds

Effect of temperature on an enzyme (know the graph)

At colder temperatures, enzymes are less active due to the lack of energy and collisions. They work best at an optimal temperature, and then denature after that

Effect of substrate concentration on an enzyme (know the graph)

With more substrate, there’s more collisions and more enzyme activity. However, at a certain point all the active sites will be filled and productivity will not increase

Effect of pH on an enzyme (know the graph)

Denaturation occurs when the pH is not optimal

ATP - how it works and usages

A break is made in the phosphorous chain that releases energy. ATP is used for active transport, movement and synthesizing molecules

ADP

After the ATP chain breaks, it leads just two phosphorous, making ATP.

Traits of aerobic respiration

Glucose breaks down into CO2 + H2O

In the cytoplasm and the mitochondria

Makes 30 ATP

Traits of anaerobic respiration

In yeast, CO2 and ethanol is produced, and lactate is produced in animals

Only in the cytoplasm

Makes 2 ATP

Oxygen debt

The amount of O2 needed to breakdown leftover lactate

Photosynthesis equation

H2O + CO2 → C6H12O6 + O2

Action spectrum

Shows photosynthesis rates at different wavelenghts

CO2 concentration on photosynthesis

CO2 is a substrate, so the reaction levels up after a while

Light intensity on photosynthesis

Temperature on photosynthesis

Chromotography

Separates leaf pigments and shows which pigments are are and how much. Used to calculate the Rf, which is the distance the pigment traveled/the distance the solvent traveled

Absorption spectrum

Graph showing how pigments absorb different wavelengths

Colors vs pigments

Colors are how we perceive light, pigments absorb certain wavelengths

System integration

Integrates multiple levels of the organism

Tissue

2+ types of cells, specialized

Organ

2+ types of tissue

Organ system

Group of organs

Organism

All its systems together

How do the body systems communicate?

Hormonal and nervous signaling

Hormones

The pineal gland signals the endocrine glands to release hormones. They are slow acting and move through the bloodstream. Binds with whatever has the correct receptor. Lasts until it is broken down.

How does the nervous system work?

Communicates with electrical impulses across neurons

Reflex arc

receptor → sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron → effector muscle

White matter in the spinal cord

Transmits signals from the body

Gray matter in the spinal cord

Has cell bodies and synapses, processes info and helps make decisions

Motor cortex

Where motor neurons originate from

What is a nerve?

A nerve fiber bundle surrounded by a sheath

Cerebellum

Coordinates muscle contractions and balance

Melatonin

Released by the pineal gland, helps to regulate the circadian rhythm

Epinephrine/adrendaline

Flight or fight reactions, effects glucose/oxygen intake

Osmoregulation

Receptors detect the pH and concentration and stuff of the blood and ensure that its stable

What does the brain release during puberty?

Hypothalamus releases Gn, RlT, LH and FSH

SA node

Sinoatrial node, in the heart, pacemaker/regulates heart beat