Chapter 12: Culture

culture

The behaviors, beliefs, and products of a group, passed down through generations from their interactions with each other and the environment.

Focus areas for modern adolescent studies

Relevant studies must emphasize culture and ethnicity.

20th-century study of adolescents

Focused on ethnocentric, American, middle-SES, non-Latinx white male values.

ethnocentrism

Favoring one’s own culture and viewing others negatively.

cross-cultural studies

Cultural comparisons highlighting similarities and differences in adolescent development.

In cross-cultural research, the search for basic traits has often focused on the dichotomy between

Individualism, collectivism.

Individualism

Prioritizes personal goals and values like achievement and independence over group goals.

collectivism

Values group goals and emphasizes interdependence.

characteristics of individualistic cultures

1. Focus on individual traits and stable self-view.

2. Emphasis on personal achievement and competition.

3. Frequent cognitive dissonance; self-focused emotions.

4. Valued traits include independence, success, and personal freedom.

5. Casual relationships and privacy are common.

6. Limited physical contact, such as with mothers.

characteristics of collectivist cultures

1. Prioritizes group over individual; self is defined by relationships.

2. Public self is key; achievement benefits the group.

3. Emphasizes modesty; values include security and in-group harmony.

4. Close relationships and interdependence are common.

5. Frequent physical contact, such as hugging, is typical.

examples of individualistic cultures

Western cultures, including the US, Canada, Great Britain, and the Netherlands.

examples of collectivist cultures

Eastern cultures such as China, Japan, India, Thailand, and Mexico.

Self-conceptions

Related to culture.

In one study, American college students were more likely to

describe personal traits; Chinese students identified by group.

Critics of Western psychology

Argue that individualism undermines relatedness.

Individualistic culture values for autonomy

Personal choice, intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, self-maximization.

Values emphasized by collectivist cultures

Connectedness to family, group orientation, respect, and obedience.

Critics of the individualism-collectivism dichotomy

Argue it is overly broad and simplistic, especially with globalization in mind.

Developmental needs

A positive sense of self and connectedness to others are essential for human development.

What did Reed Larson and Suman Verma examine?

Adolescents' use of time in various activities.

US adolescents' schoolwork time compared to East Asian adolescents

US adolescents spend 40% less time on schoolwork.

Discretionary time for US adolescents

US adolescents have more discretionary time than peers in other industrialized countries.

Largest amounts of US adolescents’ free time

Spent using media and engaging in unstructured leisure activities.

US adolescents' unstructured time

US adolescents have more unstructured time than optimal for development.

Adolescents choosing activities

They engage in unchallenging activities.

rites of passage

Ceremonies marking transitions between statuses.

Rites of passage locations

Many rites of passage for adolescents occur in sub-Saharan Africa.

Western industrialized countries

Notable for lacking formal rites of passage into adulthood.

High school graduation

Nearly universal among middle-SES adolescents in the U.S.; increasing among low-income adolescents.

Rite of passage

Sexual intercourse is becoming a common rite of passage for American adolescents.

Absence of clear-cut rites of passage

Creates ambiguity in achieving adult status, causing confusion about adulthood.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A group sharing similar job, education, and economic traits.

Socioeconomic status (SES)

A classification based on job, education, and economic traits, typically divided into low and middle categories, but can include up to five.

Socioeconomic characteristics

Adolescents' families, schools, and neighborhoods reflect their socioeconomic status.

Influences on adolescent adjustment and achievement

Neighborhood settings can impact adolescents' adjustment and achievement.

SES child-rearing differences

Differences in child-rearing are found among various SES groups in the US and Western cultures.

Low-SES risks

Low-SES children and adolescents are at risk for low achievement, health issues, and emotional problems in adulthood.

Poverty marker

Federal poverty threshold = food cost x 3.

Poverty rate among US children (2018)

16.2% lived in families below the poverty line, higher than in other developed countries.

Poverty rates in families (2018)

African American families: 30.1%; Latinx families: 23.7%.

Poverty rate for non-Latinx white families

8.9%.

Ethnic minority children and adolescents

More likely to experience persistent poverty and isolation in poor neighborhoods.

Single-mother families in poverty (2019)

34%, six times the rate of married-couple families (6%).

Powerlessness of the poor

The poor lack decision-making power, are vulnerable, and have limited choices.

Poor children's experiences

Environmental inequities.

Damaging effects of persistent poverty

Occurs when poverty is long-standing.

Adolescents' awareness of poverty stigma

Adolescents are more aware of social disadvantage due to cognitive growth.

Concern for youth in poverty

High percentage of children in mother-headed households living in poverty.

feminization of poverty

More women live in poverty than men.

Trend in antipoverty programs

Two-generation interventions.

Services for children in antipoverty programs

Educational childcare, preschool, and after-school programs.

Services for parents in antipoverty programs

Adult education, literacy, and job training.

Focus of poverty interventions

Schools, school programs.

ethnicity

Cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language.

Striking feature of the US today

Growing ethnic diversity among adolescents and emerging adults.

Variations in immigrant families

Involve parent nationality, child birth country, and immigration ages.

Growth of ethnic minorities in the US

Driven by high minority immigration rates.

Non-Latinx white children demographics

Projected to decrease from 50.3% in 2018 to 44% by 2060.

Latinx children's demographics

Projected to increase from 25.5% in 2018 to 29% by 2060.

Asian American children's demographics

Projected to increase from 5.1% in 2018 to 9% by 2060.

African American children demographics

Projected to decrease from 13.7% in 2014 to 13% by 2060.

Stressors for immigrants

Language barriers, loss of support networks, identity challenges, acculturation issues, and socioeconomic changes.

immigrant paradox

Recent immigrant youth often adapt better than nonimmigrant peers despite challenges.

acculturation

Adapting to the dominant culture.

Bicultural orientation

Adopting aspects of both the dominant and original culture.

Parenting Focus

Promoting ethnic pride, cultural knowledge, and awareness of discrimination.

Well-being of immigrant adolescents

Determined by migration characteristics and family circumstances.

Ethnic minority youths’ awareness of

Awareness of negative appraisals, conflicting values, and restricted opportunities influences life choices and future plans.

Special concern for ethnic minority youth

The lack of successful ethnic minority role models, particularly in inner cities.

bicultural orientation

Adopting helpful aspects of US culture while retaining one's original culture.

cultural brokering

Children act as mediators for their immigrant parents in cultural and linguistic matters.

Poverty among ethnic minority youth

Ethnic minority children experience higher poverty rates than non-Latinx white children.

Research gaps in ethnic minority studies

Research often conflates ethnicity with socioeconomic status (SES), misattributing developmental aspects to ethnicity when they are based on SES.

Economic advantage and ethnic minority youth

Many ethnic minority families remain poor, which contributes to stress in their lives despite any economic advantages they may have.

Double disadvantage for ethnic minority adolescents

Ethnic minority youth face prejudice and poverty-related stress.

Differences among ethnic minority groups

Legitimate differences arise from historical, economic, and social experiences.

Conformity in ethnic or cultural groups

Members adopt the values, attitudes, and stresses of their culture, leading to functional behaviors that may differ from the majority.

Deficits in ethnic minority perception

Historically viewed as inferior traits; recent focus is on positive aspects of ethnic groups.

Diversity in ethnic minority groups

Ethnic minority groups are diverse and not homogeneous, with varied backgrounds.

racism

Prejudice or antagonism towards individuals based on race or ethnicity.

Native American student graduation rates

Native American students have the lowest college graduation rates of any ethnic group, a situation worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic.

Diana Hughes' emphasis

Parents should discuss current racial events with children suitably for their learning capacity.

What do many BIPOC parents teach their children?

How to stay safe during police interactions.

Screen time comparison

Adolescents spend more time in front of screens than with parents or in classrooms.

What does screen time describe?

The amount of time spent on TV, video games, and digital devices like smartphones.

Excessive screen time during COVID-19

Concern about increased screen time among children and adolescents due to quarantine.

Kaiser Family Foundation media use surveys

Surveys showed significant media use increases during adolescence, with 11-14 year olds averaging over 60 hours and 15-18 year olds almost 56 hours per week.

Gender differences in screen time

Girls spend more time on smartphones and social media, while boys spend more time on gaming and general device use.

Impact of violent screen media on aggression

More exposure to violent screen media correlates with higher aggression in adolescents and young adults.

TV violence exposure at age 8

Significantly linked to serious adult criminal behavior.

What is viewing educational TV programs as preschoolers associated with?

Viewing educational TV in preschool is linked to better grades, more reading, and lower aggression in boys during adolescence.

What are the harmful effects of media violence?

Media violence leads to increased aggression, hostile feelings, and desensitization, while decreasing prosocial behavior and empathy.

Positive outcomes from video game play

Video games can enhance prosocial behavior, visuospatial skills, and attentional control.

What kinds of video games are linked to weight loss?

Exercise-based games.

Factors that determine whether viewing screen media sex influences the behavior of adolescents

The adolescents’ needs, interests, concerns, and maturity.

Explanations for greater screen time resulting in lower achievement

Interference (TV acts as a distraction when it’s on while doing homework, hindering cognitive tasks), displacement (TV takes away valuable time and attention from achievement-related activities like reading, writing, and mathematics), and self-defeating tastes / preferences (prolonged screen exposure can shape tastes and habits that negatively affect long-term academic and personal development.

What types of TV content may enhance achievement?

Educational programming.

For a small percentage of adolescents, certain music may …

provide a behavioral marker for psychological problems.

One study revealed that higher use of music media was related to …

viewing the self as less physically attractive and having lower overall self-worth.

Media viewing contexts that are linked to a higher level of physical aggression

TV violence, video game violence, and music video violence.