PSYCB208: Intro. to Social Psych. (Final Exam)

Social Influence

The influence that other people’s comments, actions, or presence have on our beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors.

Types of Social Influence

Conformity, Compliance, Obedience

Conformity

The tendency to change our perceptions, opinions, or behavior in ways that are consistent with the group

Social Norms

Learned social rules that indicate what is typical, expected, or valued in a group

Descriptive Norms

How people actually behave

Injunctive Norms

How people should or should not behave

Types of Social Influence (Involving Norms)

Information Social Influence, Normative Social Influence

Information Social Influence

We conform to the norm because it provides information about what is right, effective, or valued in that context.

Normative Social Influence

We conform to the norm to avoid others’ disapproval, judgment, or social sanctions to be accepted.

Factors Affecting Conformity

Group Size, Unanimity, Cohesion, Culture (Collectivist and Independent), and Individual Differences

Group Size

Bigger groups often encourage more conformity.

Unanimity

Just one dissenter can substantially decrease group conformity.

Cohesion

Members of Cohesive groups tend to conform more

Culture

Collectivist cultures are more likely to conform, while Independent cultures are less likely to conform.

Individual Differences

People with higher self

Pros of Social Norms

Coordinated Behavior, Social Order, Cooperation, Development of “Social Scripts”, Social Cohesion, Culture, and a Sense of Belonging

Cons of Social Norms

Pluralistic ignorance, Forced Conformity, Reduced Individualism, Decreasing Critical Thinking, Perpetuating Inequality, Absurd Origins, and Harmful Groupthink.

Pluralistic Ignorance

When individuals privately reject a group norm but incorrectly assume most others accept it, leading them to conform publicly

Groupthink

When a cohesive group makes irrational or poor decisions due to intense conformity pressures and the desire for harmony over critical analysis.

Compliance

Changing perceptions, opinions, or behavior based on direct requests

Injunctive Positive

Conveys what people should be doing by highlighting desirable behavior (e.g., “Please leave petrified wood in the Park.”)

Injunctive Negative

Coveys what people should not be doing by highlighting desirable behavior (e.g., “Please don’t remove petrified wood from the park.”)

Descriptive Positive

Coveys what people should do by highlighting the desirable behaviors of others (e.g., “The vast majority of past visitors have left the petrified wood in the park, preserving the natural state of the Petrified Forest.”)

Descriptive Negative

Coveys what people should not do by highlighting the undesirable behavior of others (e.g., “Many past visitors have removed the petrified wood from the park, changing the state of the Petrified Forest.”)

Robert Cialdini’s Principles of Persuasion

Reciprocity, Commitment & Consistency, Social Proof, Liking, Authority, and Scarcity

Reciprocity (Persuasion)

The idea that we should repay others for what they give us.

Why do Reciprocation Norms work?

They create a sense of obligation in the recipient, making them feel guilty if they do not reciprocate. Those who take without giving may face social disapproval.

Commitment & Consistency

Once a person takes a stand, there is a natural tendency to behave in ways that are consistent with the stand.

Why do Commitment & Consistency Norms work?

Since good personal consistency is highly valued by society, people are more likely to prefer consistency due to mental laziness.

Social Proof

We view a behavior as correct to the extent we see others engaging in it.

Why do Social Proof Norms work?

People are cognitively lazy, and following the lead of others requires less thinking. Generally, people will make fewer mistakes by paying attention to social evidence than by ignoring it.

Liking

People prefer to comply with the requests of people who are like us. For example, people who are similar to us and/or share our values.

Why does Liking Norms work?

People who are like us are less likely to take advantage of us than people who are unlike us.

Authority

People are more likely to comply when the requester has authority over us.

Why do Authority Norms work?

We are socialized to inherently obey authority figures, as usually they possess high levels of knowledge, wisdom, and power. However, not obeying authority figures can have negative consequences.

Scarcity

Opportunities seem more valuable to use when they are less available.

Why do Scarcity Norms work?

Things that are difficult to attain are generally more valuable, and as things become less available, people lose the freedom to buy these things. This elicits a physiological arousal.

Group

A collection of individuals who are interdependent to some degree.

Why do Groups Form?

The fundamental need to belong, social roles, and self

Drive Theory

The mere presence of others causes arousal (the most reflexive and dominant response)

Causes of Drive Theory

Evaluation apprehension and the Distraction

Evaluation Apprehension

Concern about how others view us.

Distraction

Conflict Hypothesis

“Risky Shifts”

The tendency for groups to make consensus decisions is “riskier” than decisions made by individuals before group discussion.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group decisions to be more extreme than those made by individuals. In general, whichever way individuals lean, the group discussion tends to push them further in that direction.

Causes of group polarization

Persuasion, Social comparison, active participation that solidifies views, and the diffusion of personal responsibility.

What traits of groups do people need to feel about the groups they belong to?

The group is accepted by others, can achieve goals, and can openly and authentically express themselves.

What needs are impacted when a person is identified with a group that is discriminated against?

Acceptance (discrimination is internalized as personal rejection, negatively affecting one’s well

Social Loafing

the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively than when working alone

Diffusion of responsibility

A phenomenon wherein people feel less personal responsibility in a group than they would if they were alone.

How can we reduce social loafing?

Make the effort of each person, allowing people to evaluate their own contributions, and increasing group members’ commitment to the effort.

Deindividuation

Individuals in a group lose self-awareness, personal identity, and accountability, often leading to uninhibited, impulsive, or antisocial behavior.

Antecedent Conditions of deindividuation

anonymity, diffusion of responsibility, energizing effect of other people, and stimulus overload.

Conditions of Deindividuation

anonymity, large group size, diffusion of responsibility, and high arousal/sensory overload

Behavioral Effects of Deindividuation

Impulsivity, irrationality, emotionality, and antisocial activity.

The ABCs of Bias

Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive

Affective Bias

Prejudice: Negative attitudes toward people in a distinguished group based solely on their perceived membership of said group.

Behavioral Bias

Discrimination: Unjustified and negative behavior towards a group or its members.

Cognitive Bias

Stereotypes: A generalization about a group of people where certain traits are assumed to apply to all members of a group, regardless of actual variation among the members.

Bias

Reacting to a person based on their perceived membership in a group, while ignoring all other parts of their identity or personal traits.

Where does bias come from?

Socialization (the direct and/or indirect observation of others through social norms, media, and institutions), cognition, and motivation.

The Descriptive to Injunctive Bias

People tend to infer that what is (descriptive norms) reflects the way things should be (injunctive norms).

Essentialism

the belief that members of categories share an innate and underlying “essence”

Dissociation Model of Prejudice

Stereotypes are automatically triggered, and we control whether we accept them.

Outgroup homogeneity effect

people view members of their own group (ingroup) as diverse individuals, while viewing members of other groups (outgroups) as more similar to one another

Perceptual narrowing

A developmental process occurring between 6-12 months, where children refine their perceptual systems by losing the ability to distinguish stimuli they rarely encounter, such as foreign speech sounds or other-race faces, while becoming specialized in familiar ones

Realistic Group Conflict Theory

Actual or perceived competition for resources or competing goals between groups leads to conflict, which then fosters stereotyping and prejudice.

Social Identity Theory

A person’s sense of self is derived from group memberships, not just personal identity

Types of Bias

Explicit Bias, Subtle Bias, and Implicit Bias

Sexism

An individual’s prejudicial attitudes, stereotypic beliefs, and discriminatory behavior towards people of a given sex.

Hostile Sexism

A blatant form of sexism that functions to maintain men’s societal dominance (e.g., Women are less competent and intelligent than men, Women are sexually manipulative, and overly emotional)

Benevolent Sexism

A more subtle form of sexism that functions to maintain men’s societal dominance (e.g., Men should behave chivalrously towards women, Men are protectors and providers for women because they are inherently more fragile and innocent)

Racism

An individual’s prejudicial attitudes, stereotypical beliefs, and discriminatory behavior towards people of a given race.

Hostile Racism

A blatant form of racism where people explicitly express negative feelings towards, and stereotypes about, people of a certain racial group.

Modern Racism

A more subtle form of racism where people reject explicitly racist beliefs, yet feel discomfort with or animosity towards people of a certain racial group.

Implicit Bias

A subtle, sometimes unconscious, form of bias where people hold associations about social categories that may contradict self

Consequences of Bias

Bias has implications for how people perceive the world, affecting how they feel, think, and act. They are often pervasive and numerous.

The I.A.T.

A computer-based psychological tool designed to measure unconscious attitudes, stereotypes, or beliefs that individuals may be unable or unwilling to report

What are the optimal contact conditions for reducing intergroup prejudice?

Common Goals, Cooperative Environment, Institutional support, and giving the groups equal status in context.

Why does Intergroup Contact reduce prejudice?

It increases knowledge about members of the outgroup, reduces anxiety between groups, and increases empathy and perspective about the outgroup.

The “Marley Hypothesis”

Lacking knowledge of past racism in the United States produces white people’s denial of the extent to which racism continues to be a problem.

How do relationships form?

Proximity, Familiarity, Similarity, Reciprocity, Attractiveness, and Arousal*

The Propinquity Effect

the tendency to form friendships or romantic relationships with people you encounter, often driven by physical or functional proximity.

The Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure to a stimulus (object or person) often leads to greater liking.

The Matching Hypothesis

Social background (Class, education, religion, race, and ethnicity), Physical Characteristics (Health and Attractiveness), Values & Attitudes (Politics, etc.), and Personality (Genuineness, Extraversion)

The Complementarity Hypothesis

“Opposites Attract,” often limited in scope, e.g., someone dependent might seek out someone nurturing.

Reciprocity (Forming Relationships)

People tend to like others who feel the same way towards us as we do towards them.

The Halo Effect

The common belief that physically attractive people also enjoy a host of other positive qualities.

Why does attractiveness matter?

Creates an immediate and evident initial impression.

Theories of Emotion (Schacter)

The concpet that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label

Sternberg’s Triangle of Love Theory

Passion (Physiological arousal, longing, and sexual attraction), Intimacy (Close bond, sharing, support), and Commitment (Willingness to remain with one another).

Takeaways from the Bridge Study (Dutton & Aron, 1974)

Participants who crossed the rickety bridge were more likely to interpret their physiological arousal as a sign of attraction to the female experimenter

The 3 Factors that determine if people remain in relationships

Satisfaction Level, Quality of Alternatives, and Investment Size.

Types of Social Support

Instrumental, Informational, and Emotional

Instrumental Social Support

Concrete resources (e.g., lending money, helping with errands)

Informational Social Support

Relevant information is useful for coping (e.g., advice, knowledge)

Emotional Social Support

Expression of empathy, caring, compassion, listening, and reassurance.

The “Buffering” Hypothesis

The role of one’s social network in providing social support kicks in when one is under stress.

The Role of Social Support

Perceived (rather than received) social support is a strong predictor of physical and mental well

Emotional Regulation

The process that determines what emotions we feel, how we experience them, and how we express them to others.