French Revolution

What was the state of Paris in 1795, and what were the causes of the hardships?

Economic turmoil, food shortages, and political instability as a result of the ongoing war, disruptions in trade, and the fiscal crises- widespread poverty and dissatisfaction contributed to social unrest

Describe the causes of the rising of Germinal

Bad economic situation- governments resources were weakened by inflation, unemployment, and ongoing food shortages, lack of effective leadership and radical policies to address these issues fuelled demands for change

When was the Rising of Germinal?

1st April 1795

Describe the events of the rising of Germinal

sans-culottes saw opportunity for power, 10,000 invaded convention demanding ‘bread and the constitution of 1793’, not armed or organised so withdrew without resistance,

describe the consequences of the rising of germinal

convention placed Paris under martial law, giving command to Pichegru who sought out and arrested agitators, sped up deportation of Montagnards and ordered disarming of all who played a part in the terror

What were the causes of the rising of Prairial?

severe economic hardship and opposition to the Thermidorian reaction

When was the rising of the Priarial?

20/21st May 1795

Describe the events of the rising of Priarial

Larger group of sans culottes invaded Convention, forced way into meeting hall and killed Jean-Bertrand Feraud- failed to disperse- troops called to drive them out, demanded release of Jacobin prisoners, reinstatement of 1793 Constitution and new controls to ensure a better supply of food to capital- convention agreed to establish a food commission

Second day- 20,000 sans culottes and National guards aimed loaded cannons at Convention, 40,000 regular soldiers called to disperse crowd- no shots fired, negotiated petitions were presented and lulled by further promises- sans culottes withdrew

What were the outcomes of the rising of Priarial?

convention marched troops to Faubourg Saint-Antoine and forced surrender of weapons, leaders murdered and any suspects of deferring were arrested

Why was the rising of Vendemiaire different to the previous two risings?

royalist rising- bourgeoisie as opposed to lower class sans-culottes, different motivations

What were the causes of the rising of Vendemiaire?

monarchists thought plebiscite in September to win support for non-monarchical constitution had been rigged, anger furthered by Compte de d’artois landing off coast of Vendee

When was the rising of the Vendemiaire?

5 October 1795

Describe the events of the rising of the Vendemiaire

royalist demonstrations held by muscadine, factory and property owners- convention assembled three battalions by calling in dismissed Jacobin army officers dismissed after 9 Thermidor- general baron de men in charge- Paul barres gave Napoleon permission to have 5-6,000 troops (outnumbered royalists 6-1), found 40 cannons, 300 killed

What were the outcomes of the rising of Vendemiaire?

royalists repulsed- 300 killed

What were influences for the Constitution of the Directory (Constitution of Year III)?

sought to restore stability by resurrecting revolutionary principles of 1789- Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

When and how was the Constitution of the Directory ratified?

24th September 1795

What was the Directory of Five?

executive power- 40+ year old men who previously served in ministerial or legislative office

What was the Council of Five Hundred?

lower house- deputies 30+ years old, proposed and drew up all legislation but didnt vote on it

What was the Council of Ancients?

upper house- 250 deputies over 40, either married or widowed, examined and approved legislation but didnt propose it

How often were elections to the directory bodies, and who could vote?

drew lots each year to decide who would retire in an attempt at broader democracy, directors chosen by council of ancients from a list from the council of 500, overall voting pool limited to male taxpayers over 21- if in a town with a population over 6000, eligible voters also had to rent land worth between 100 and 200 days labour, number of voters from 6 million to 1 million

How many Directors served, and who were the most memorable?

14- Barras, Sieyes, Ducos, Moulin, Rewbelle, Revelliere

What were the biggest issues with the Directory, and how was a split caused?

Late 1795 like-minded radicals met at Pantheon Club (replaced Jacobins), listened to staged readings of Le Tribun du Peuple (newspaper by Gracchus Babeuf) and called for abolition of private property in favour of communal ownership, royalists still wanted a new king but were split between constitutional monarchy and absolutism, Britain and austria moved to make peace negotiations- royalists were in favour, generals opposed

What were the Directory’s financial and economic issues? (5)

1. by December 1795 the assignat’s value fell to 1% of its face value- discontinued February 1796

2. in Paris, bread cost 50 livres, butter 100 and soap 170

3. prices were driven up by british blockade and poor harvests

4. mandats territoriaux introduced- worthless by February 1797

5. failure lead to a return of metal currency and rise of central bank by 1800 lead to mega national debt- claimed bankruptcy on 2/3 of debt

What efforts did the Directory make to stabilise the country?

promised to pay last third of debt, each time a city was claimed by French armies they had to send a large sum of money back to Paris

Why were mandats introduced and what was the effect?

assignat failed by February 1796- mandats introduced to try and replace them in paper currency- continued to fail and were worthless quicker

What was the extent of the threat posed to the Directory by the Royalists?

had a headquarters in the Clichy Club- set out a propaganda campaign emphasising poor quality of life and corruption within the Directory- tried to revoke right to vote from aristocrats not yet removed from Emigre list, but in the 1797 elections they gained 182 seats, Pichegru became president of the Council of 500

What was the extent of the threat posed to the Directory by the Jacobins?

Late 1795 like-minded radicals met at Pantheon Club (replaced Jacobins), listened to staged readings of Le Tribun du Peuple (newspaper by Gracchus Babeuf) and called for abolition of private property in favour of communal ownership- disturbed Directory, Napoleon ordered to close the Pantheon Club 27 February 1796

Spring 1796- coup planned to overthrow Directory (Conspiracy of Equals), betrayed to Directory- arrested 10 May, Babeuf and one other guillotined on 27 May 1797 and seven others deported- foiling of plot didn’t make a difference to ease social unrest

What was the outcome of the political issues the Directory faced?

Coup of Fructidor, shut down royalist newspapers, arrested royalist journalists and covered city with papers of Pichegru’s treasons, 53 deputies arrested including Pichegru (deported), Council annulled recent election- 177 seats vacant, implementation of anti-royalist legislation, Emigres returning to France with monarchist intentions given two weeks to leave or death- 160 aristocrats arrested, clergy compelled to swear oaths denouncing royalism or to be deported, Churches confiscated by gvt. and rededicated as Theophilanthropic temples (new deistic sect)

Describe the end of the Vendean and Chouan rebellion

Hoche ended war in the vendee 1796- leaders Stofflet and Charette killed, 200,000-450,000 deaths, Georges Cadoudal surrendered June 1796 (Chouan leader)

When was the Coup of Fructidor?

4th September 1797

What was the cause of the Coup of Fructidor?

Britain and Austria moved to make peace negotiations, royalists hoped peace could include restoration of the monarchy- resisted by generals including Napoleon

Describe the events of the Coup of Fructidor

Bonaparte sent secret letters to Directors showing that Pichegru had met with agents of Louis XVIII and plotted to restore the monarchy in a military coup but Barras, Rewbell and Révellière (all directors) made a plot to retake control of gvt. by their own coup, 1797 summer- soldiers arrived in Brest to prepare invasion of Britain, 4 September 1797 conspirators seized city’s strongholds and surrounded legislative chambers

What were the consequences of the Coup of Fructidor?

Shut down royalist newspapers, arrested royalist journalists and covered city with papers of Pichegru’s treasons, 53 deputies arrested including Pichegru (deported), council annulled recent election- 177 seats vacant

What legislation followed the Coup of Fructidor?

Implementation of anti-royalist legislation, Emigres returning to France with monarchist intentions given two weeks to leave or death- 160 aristocrats arrested, Clergy compelled to swear oaths denouncing royalism or to be deported, Churches confiscated by gvt. and rededicated as Theophilanthropic temples (new deistic sect)

When was the Coup of Floreal?

May 11th, 1798

What caused the Coup of Floreal?

Jacobin resurgence- Elections of 1798 (9-18 April) had a strong Jacobin turnout, moderates still in disarray after losing 1797 elections

Describe the events of the Coup of Floreal

directory pressured council of 500 to pass a law declaring election results in 53 departments invalid, making 127 deputies (mostly Jacobin) have their elections declared void and lost their seats to people specifically chosen by the Directory

What were the consequences of the Coup of Floreal?

violated Law of 22 Floréal Year VI which stated it was supposed to be democratic, caused societal hatred for the Directory

When was the Coup of Priarial?

18th June 1798

What was the cause of the Coup of Priarial?

Jacobin resurgence, military failures in WO2C

Describe the events of the Coup of Priarial

Councils questioned the conduct of the war including the recalling of a Jacobin General, found election of one of the Directors had been illegal- Sieyes took advantage of these grievances- wanted Directors Revelliere-Lepeaux + Phillipe de Douai to stand down but they refused

What were the consequences of the Coup of Priarial?

Put more divisions between the Directors and the Councils, Sieyes introduced the Law of Hostages but its only spasmodically applied, constitution yet again undermined- weak

What were the strengths of the Directory? (5)

few wanted to return to Jacobin terror or ancien regime, royalists were deeply divided between absolutists and constitutionals, revolutionary enthusiasm disappeared, constitution made dictatorship impossible, army supported directory

What were the weaknesses of the Directory? (3)

no stability due to annual elections and no firm government - avoiding dictatorship meant no-one had overall control, relied on vetoing elections and calling in the army to solve disputes, interference in election results to prevent royalist or Jacobin majority caused collapse of legitimacy

What was the Thermidorian reaction?

the people wanting a conservative republic that was free of centralised power- in retaliation to the Terror and Robespierre

Describe all measures which ensured the Terror was over

Thermidorian reaction repealed the legislation of the terror, disempowered the CPS, August 1795 dissolved the National Convention and replaced it with the directory, Robespierre guillotined July 28th 1794

At the end of 1794 who was in control of government?

National Convention lead by Thermidorians

What was the White Terror?

first year of the Thermidorian Convention, purging of Jacobins

Describe the events of the White Terror

Parisian Jacobins outlawed November 1794, groups targeted in the reign of terror formed gangs or militias to rid of local Jacobins- some of the groups (compagnies de jehu and compagnies du soleil) were royalist, most Thermidorian gangs etc didn’t want to restore the monarchy, just to rid of the Jacobins, some killings were legally approved- NC kept revolutionary tribunal in operation until end of May 1795, used fairer legal processes than Jacobins- few Jacobins survived if they were in the anti-Robespierre coup

Anti-Jacobin, moderate republican, monarchists?

What were the consequences of the White Terror?

lots of political violence by the muscadins, jeunesse doree, bourgeoisie, defended new political order after Robespierre was taken down, Girondists and Dantonists who survived the terror were allowed back into daily life

When was Louis XVI born?

August 23rd, 1754

When did Louis XVI die?

21st January 1793

How old was Louis when he became Dauphin?

11 years old

What was Louis XVI’s character?

smart- educated, knew languages and the natural world, but also weak- struggled with holding power over his subjects, easily overwhelmed

When was Marie Antoinette born?

November 2nd, 1755

how many children did Marie Antoinette have?

four- Marie-Therese, Louis Joseph, Sophie, Louis Charles

What was the 1st Estate?

clergy- 0.5% of the population owning 10% of land

How much tax did the 1st Estate pay?

exempt- only payed Don Gratuity of 16 million livres annually (only 5% of total income)

Why were the 1st Estate resented?

immense total wealth and tax exemption

What was the 2nd Estate?

nobility- 2% of population (120,000), owning 25-33% of land

Why were the 2nd Estate resented?

exempt from tax, capitalist relationship with third estate and immense wealth

What was the 3rd Estate?

peasantry to bourgeoisie- remainder of population

How many people made up the 3rd Estate?

27 million people- 97% of population

Why did bourgeoisie have conflicts with other Estates?

were upper class of third estate- had similar wealth to some members of first estate and bordered second estate wealth but were represented as third estate

Why were the 3rd Estate so dissatisfied?

had to pay taxes such as vingtiemme, taille and corvees despite being poorest members of ancient regime france, also were largest part of population but had least relative representation

What were the three biggest long-term causes of the French Revolution?

class system, finances (including as a result of war), enlightenment ideas

Why was government finance an issue leading to the revolution?

American Revolution cost 1.3 billion livres, War of Austrian Succession cost 1 billion livres, Seven Years War cost 1.3 billion livres, by 1786 France was in a deficit of 112 million livres and were on verge if bankruptcy by August 1788

Why were tensions in society an issue leading to the revolution?

American Revolution put into action the enlightenment ideas that the lower classes could relate to- AR was a success, so could a FR be too?

What was the impact of the enlightenment?

fuelled both French and American Revolutions, caused increase in salons → increased political debate, questioned church (reason over faith), promoted education

What years was Turgot finance minister in?

1774-1776

What were the positives of Turgot’s time as finance minister?

Tried to stop/slow down government spending/ waste, tried to avoid increasing taxes and foreign loans

What were the negatives of Turgot’s time as finance minister?

deregulation of grain trade in a year of bad harvests triggered Flour War 1775- soaring bread prices, Six Edicts caused him to be unliked by upper classes- lost support

What were the ‘six edicts’?

1776- aimed to modernise French economy

abolition of guilds, suppression of corvee tax, suppression of offices in the ports, suppression of the tax on selling livestock to Parisian butchers, regulation of grain trade, modification of the gabelle salt tax

Why did Turgot resign?

was pushed by Marie Antoinette, intense opposition to edicts and reforms

Name four key enlightenment figures.

Voltaire, Montasquieu, Diderot, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Olympe de Gouge, Wollstonecraft

What was Voltaire’s impact on the French Revolution?

separation of church and state- induced religious debate

What was Rousseau’s impact on the French Revolution?

social contract seperating ruler and ruled- ‘tabula rasa’, society corrupts people- questioning society

What was Diderot’s impact on the French Revolution?

created encyclopaedia- available education for all

What was Montesquieu’s impact on the French Revolution?

separation of the executive, legislative and judicial powers

What were the events of the Diamond Necklace Affair?

Cardinal Rohan had fallen out of the queens favour due to his promiscuous behaviour, the Countess of La Motte claimed to be one of the queens’ friends, assuring the cardinal that he could be forgiven by the Queen, and made a nocturnal meeting on 11^th August 1784 in the Queen’s Grove- during the meeting a lady, claiming to be Antoinette, said he was forgiven. The Countess of La Motte convinced the cardinal to act as an intermediary and buy the necklace on behalf of the queen and pay four instalments over two years.

1^st January 1785 cardinal received the necklace, gave it to Mme La Motte, who disappeared- 12^th July, the jeweller contacted the queen, who had no idea of the affair, jeweller contacted lady in waiting, who told the queen of what happened

When was the Diamond Necklace Affair?

11th August 1784- May 1786

What were the consequences of the Diamond Necklace Affair? (4)

15^th August, Rohan was arrested in the Hall of Mirrors, the cardinal was trialled in May 1786 (innocent), Mme de La Motte was arrested and branded with a V for voleuse (thief), Queen was entirely innocent, but not fully trusted anymore

What were the Salons?

informal gatherings for women, intellectuals and philosophers to discuss ideas and politics- took place in the homes of influential and wealthy people

What was the significance of the Salons to the enlightenment?

middle class/second estate spurring on the enlightenment- discussed politics and favoured a republic

Who was Madame de Stael?

head of the main salon in Paris- father was Necker, spent most of her early years in there mothers salon which was extremely influential

What were the four main categories which the short-term causes of the FR can be sorted into?

economic, financial, social, foreign policy

What were the main two foreign policy issues for France?

foreign relations and financing

What was the impact of the Seven Years War?

loss of North American influence, cost 1.8 billion livres

What was the impact of French involvement in the American Revolution?

cost 1.3 billion livres, brought wider recognition to Enlightenment ideas, in theory better trade relations but in reality weakened relations with England

What was Louis told on 20th August 1786?

Calonne told Louis they were bankrupt- deficit of 112 million livres- didnt do anything about it

What were the reasons for the financial crisis 1786?

involvement in Austrian Succession, Seven Years War and American Revolution, loan lenders didnt have much confidence, crown wasn’t receiving tax revenue from second and first estates

What were the proposed reforms to fix the financial crisis 1786?

replacing capitation and vingtieme with a land tax without exemption, abolishing internal customs barriers on the grain trade, restoring national confidence

Why did reforms to fix the financial crisis 1786 fail?

went to assembly of notables- second and first estates, were already exempt from taxes so didnt want to have to pay- no support → estates general, who were too unpredictable

What was the political crisis 1787?

The Paris parlement refused to register Brienne’s reforms and wanted political change- Louis exiled the parlement, and the parlement advertised itself as the centre of royal despotism opposition, Brienne was replaced with Necker, May 3^rd the Paris parlement issued “Declaration of the Fundamental Laws of France”

What were Brienne’s proposed reforms? (6)

1. universal land tax

2. conversion of the corvee into a money tax

3. establishment of provincial assemblies

4. free trade reform

5. increased church contributions

6. sale of church lands

Describe the events of the Nobles revolt

nobility met without louis to discuss how to defend authority of the parlements

What was the Day of the Tiles?

June 7^th- Duc de Clermont-Tonnerre ordered to remove magistrates from Grenoble, leading to a strike. Some of the troops shot into the crowds, killing a twelve-year-old. Clermont-Tonnerre chose to evacuate the town due to the sheer amount of protesters.

What were the consequences of the nobles revolt?

august 1788- treasury suspends payments, necker advised meeting of the estates general in 1789

Why was Necker brought back?

dire financial crisis, social support, brienne was largely disliked

What were the consequences of the political crisis 1787?

May 4^th the king issues lettres de cachet ordering the arrest of two members of the Paris parlement, May 8^th the king and his ministers issue edicts removing some of the parlement’s powers and abolishing the use of torture, June 7^th mobs protest in Grenoble and Brittany, demanding the reinstatement of their local parlement