Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Language, Development, Motivation, Emotion, Personality

A collection of flashcards covering key concepts from the lecture on Memory, Thinking, Intelligence, Language, Development, Motivation, Emotion, and Personality.

Memory

The retention of information or experiences over time as the result of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

The three steps are encoding, storage, and retrieval

Encoding

The process by which information gets into memory storage.

Stroage

The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

Retrieval

retrieving it for a later purpose 

Selective Attention

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others.

Divided Attention

Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time.

Sustained Attention

The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time.

Levels of Processing (3)

Different depths at which information can be processed, affecting how well it is remembered.

Shallow, intermediate, deep

Shallow Processing

Noting physical features of a stimulus.

Intermediate Processing

Giving the stimulus a label.

Deep Processing

Thinking about the meaning of a stimulus.

Elaboration

Formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding.

Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory

Theory that memory storage involves three separate systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

Memory system that holds information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant.

Echoic and Iconic

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory.

Short-Term Memory

Limited capacity memory system where information is usually retained for about 30 seconds.

chunking and working memory

Chunking

Packing information that exceeds the memory span into single units.

Working Memory

A mental workbench that allows individuals to temporarily hold and manipulate information.

• guides understanding, decision making, and problem solving

Long-Term Memory

A relatively permanent type of memory that stores vast amounts of information.

• explicit and implicit

Explicit Memory

remembering who, what, where, when and why

• semantic and episodic

Semantic Memory

A person's knowledge about the world.

Episodic Memory

Retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings.

Implicit Memory

Behavior is influenced by prior experiences without conscious recollection.

• procedural and priming

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills.

Priming

Activation of previously stored information to aid new memory formation.

Retrieval

The process of bringing previously stored information into consciousness.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle.

• primacy and recency

Primacy Effect

Improved recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Improved recall for items at the end of a list.

Recall

A memory task requiring the retrieval of previously learned information.

Recognition

A memory task requiring the identification of learned items.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Information present at encoding is effective as a retrieval cue.

Context Dependent memory

People remember better when they attempt to recall information in the same context in which they learned it

Autobiographical Memory

A special form of episodic memory encompassing recollections of personal life experiences.

Flashbulb Memory

Memory of emotionally significant events, often recalled with high accuracy.

Motivated Forgetting

Forgetting that occurs when emotional pain makes memories intolerable.

Forgetting Curve

Graph illustrating the decline of memory retention over time.

Interference Theory

The theory that forgetting occurs because new information interferes with the retrieval of old information.

• proactive and retroactive

Proactive Interference

When previously learned material disrupts the recall of new material.

Retroactive Interference

When newly learned material disrupts the recall of old material.

Decay Theory

The idea that memories fade over time if not accessed or recalled.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT)

A type of effortful retrieval associated with a person feeling that they know something (say, a word or a name) but cannot quite pull it out of memory

Amnesia

Loss of memory, which can be anterograde (inability to form new memories) or retrograde (loss of past memories).

Cognition

The process of thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

Field focused on creating machines capable of performing tasks requiring intelligence.

Thinking

 The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

Concepts

Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.

Prototype Model

Model emphasizing evaluation of items against the most typical examples in a category.

Problem Solving

Mental process of finding solutions to difficult situations.

Reasoning

Mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions.

Decision Making

Evaluating alternatives and making a choice.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures guaranteeing a solution.

Heuristics

Shortcut strategies suggesting a solution but not guaranteeing it.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see objects as functioning in new ways to solve a problem.

• 2 string theory

Inductive Reasoning

Reasoning from specific observations to broader generalizations.

Deductive Reasoning

Reasoning from general principles to specific instances.

Loss Aversion

The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to attempting to acquire gains

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome

Availability Heuristic

A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

Base Rate Neglect

the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information

Representativeness Heuristic

The tendency to make judgements about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

Critical Thinking

Reflective and productive thinking, evaluating evidence and reasoning.

Mindfulness

Being alert and fully present in everyday activities.

Creative Thinking

Thinking in novel ways to devise unconventional solutions.

Divergent Thinking

thinking that produces many solutions to the same problem

Convergent Thinking

thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation derived from internal factors, such as enjoyment or challenge.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation driven by external rewards or punishments.

Self-Regulation

Effortful control of behavior to achieve long-term goals.

James-Lange Theory

Emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously.

Two-Factor Theory

Schachter and Singer's theory proposing emotion arises from physiological arousal and cognitive labeling.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Idea that facial expressions can influence emotions.

Personality

A pattern of enduring distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Views emphasizing that personality is largely unconscious.

Id

The unconscious part of personality driven by instincts and desires.

Ego

The conscious part of personality that deals with reality.

Superego

The part of personality representing moral conscience.

Defense Mechanisms

Ego's tactics to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Acceptance and valuing a person regardless of their behavior.

Self-Concept

Our conscious representation of who we are and who we wish to be.

Trait Theories

Views proposing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits).

Big Five Factors of Personality

Five broad traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.

Social Cognitive Perspective

Views emphasizing conscious awareness, beliefs, and goals in personality.

Self-Efficacy

Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations.

Self-Report Tests

Personality assessments asking individuals if specific traits describe them.

Projective Tests

Tests requiring individuals to project their own meaning onto ambiguous stimuli.

MMPI

The most widely used empirically keyed personality test.