World History Chapter 15--Age of Reason

lots of names :(

the Age of Reason

the time period between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that began to use reason as the supreme authority by which everything should be tested

the scientific method

1) recognize inadequacy of existing knowledge to explain a given question
2) perform observations in attempt to find possible answers
3) seek to find a pattern in the observations on which to base conclusions or theories
4) choose the most appropriate hypothesis to explain the observations
5) test the hypothesis by further observation and experimentation

Nicolaus Copernicus

Polish astronomer who created the heliocentric theory

heliocentric theory

sun-centered theory

Johannes Kepler

German and Lutheran astronomer who concluded that the orbit of the planets is elliptical

Galileo Galilei

Italian astronomer who contributed to many scientific fields (especially physics), improved the telescope, and confirmed the heliocentric theory and elliptical orbit theory

Isaac Newton

English astronomer who contributed to other scientific fields (such as physics and mathematics), demonstrated that white light is made of different colored lights, invented the reflecting telescope, developed calculus, discovered the laws of gravity, and published Principia

Andreas Vesalius

scientist from Flanders who published a study on human anatomy (which he learned about through dissection), nicknamed the Father of Anatomy

Paracelsus (P. A. T. Bombast Von Hohenheim)

made the first clinical study of disease and established the use of chemicals in the treatment of illnesses, advancing the science of medicine

what does “Paracelsus” mean

“better than Celsus”

Edward Jenner

Englishman who developed the first smallpox vaccination

Robert Boyle

Irishman who was the first to publish the law of inverse gas pressure

Joseph Priestley

English Unitarian minister and chemist who discovered several important chemical substances (ammonia, oxygen, nitrous oxide, hydrochloric acid, and carbon dioxide), and also performed experiments with electricity

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier

the Father of Modern Chemistry; a Frenchman who used logical rather than fanciful terminology for chemicals and formulated law of conservation of matter

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

scientist from the Netherlands who improved on the microscope and discovered the existence of microbes and bacteria

Gerhardus Mercator

man from Flanders who devised a way to map the earth on a flat surface (Mercator projection)

the Enlightenment

the intellectual movement during the eighteenth century that used human reason as the solution for all of life’s problems

rationalism

the belief that reason was the only sure source of knowledge and truth

Sir Francis Bacon

English philosopher who was one of the leading advocates of the inductive method of reasoning

inductive reasoning/the inductive method

reasoning from specific cases to a general conclusion

René Descartes

French philosopher and mathematician who advocated the deductive method of reasoning

deductive reasoning/the deductive method

starting with a simple premise, and, through careful logic, reaching another more complex truth

dualism

the belief that there are two types of reality: mind (spiritual) and matter (physical)

Baruch Spinoza

a philosopher who emphasized the importance of reasoning and the first of the Bible interpreters to demand that reason judge the truth of Scripture, taught pantheism

pantheism

the belief that everything in the universe, whether spiritual or physical, is part of one great substance called “god”

John Locke

an advocate of Empiricism

Empiricism

the belief that all knowledge comes through experience

the philosophes

the eighteenth-century French writers and social critics who became the most prominent spokesmen of the “enlightened” attitude

Baron de Montesquieu

French philosopher who believed that England symbolized political freedom, concluding that the liberty of the English resulted from the separation of the three powers of government (judicial, executive, and legislative)

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)

the leading figure of the Enlightenment who used his clever wit to criticize other people and was repeatedly driven out and banished from countries for angering kings and nobles

Denis Diderot

editor of the Encyclopédie

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

philosopher who contributed to the Encyclopédie and favored emotion over reason, called the Father of Romanticism

deism

the belief that humans are born good and the denial of anything supernatural

Pietism

a movement that arose in Germany during the seventeenth century dedicated to calling out the failures of the church

Philipp Spener

a Lutheran minister in Frankfurt who published Pia Desideria and issued a call for spiritual renewal

August Francke

a professor at the University of Halle who became a leader in training Pietist pastors and missionaries, established and supervised an orphanage, elementary schools, secondary schools, and a Bible-printing organization, temporarily turned Halle into the most influential center of German Pietism

Count Nikolaus von Zinzendorf

studied under Francke at Halle, then left the Lutheran church and became leader of the Moravians and helped them become more zealous

Herrnhut

“Lord’s Lodge”

what was the main weakness of the Pietists

they elevated personal experience over sound doctrine as found in Scripture

John Wesley

one of the most well-known preachers of the revival in England who preached around 42,000 sermons and founded the Methodists

George Whitefield

one of Wesley’s contemporaries who played a leading role at Oxford (with Charles Wesley) in leading the Methodists

the Great Awakening

the tremendous spiritual harvest during the 18th century that spread the message of salvation

Jonathan Edwards

a pastor from Yale who preached the famous sermon “Sinners at the Hands of an Angry God”

Charles Wesley

popularized hymn singing in England, considered the greatest English hymn writer, wrote many hymns filled with emotion

Isaac Watts

the Father of English Hymnody who believed that hymns should be doctrinally sound and easily understood

mannerism

the prevalent artistic style throughout the 16th century, reflected the political and religious tension of the Reformation and did not strive for realism and balance but instead are filled with distortions and exaggerations

El Greco

a famous Greek painter in the style of mannerism who created a mystical atmosphere with dramatic and sharply contrasting colors

baroque

the new art style of the seventeenth century that was grand, dynamic, heroic, active, swirling, sensual, and emotional, unlike mannerism; originated as an architectural style and spread to painting, sculpture, and music

Giovanni Bernini

famous Italian architect, sculptor, and painter of the 17th century who designed fountains for Roman plazas and the colonnades outside St. Peter’s Basilica

Peter Paul Rubens

Flemish painter who popularized the baroque style in painting, traveled to Italy and studied the master painters of the High Renaissance

rococco

“a pebble”, a French style of painting that was more delicate and feminine compared to the baroque

Rembrandt van Rijn

one of the greatest painters in history; Dutch painter who used gold tones and warm browns and contrasted light and dark to create subtle moods on canvas, later sought to convey a message through his art rather than just please the eye

chiaroscuro

the painting technique of using contrasting light and dark

neoclassical

“new classical” period of art that imitated the ancient Greek and Roman style of painting

polyphony

music in which several melody lines of equal importance are intertwined

homophony

music with one basic melody line and several supporting harmony parts

Claudio Monteverdi

one of the leading composers of Italian baroque music who was famous for operas and later popularized the form of music

George Frederick Handel

one of the most famous “English” opera composers (was actually German), spent his early years as a composer of Italian-style operas until he began composing oratorios

oratorios

musical compositions for solo singers, chorus, and orchestra that tell a sacred story without dramatic action employed in operas

what was Handel’s most famous piece

Messiah

Johann Sebastian Bach (J. S. Bach)

German baroque composer who wrote many cantatas and oratorios as well as organ, chamber and orchestral music; his skill in composing was recognized much later, always signed his compositions with J.J. (Jesu Juva) and S.D.G (Soli Deo Gloria)

Franz Joseph Haydn

Austrian composer who played a major role in setting the style for classical music and symphonic composition, called the Father of Symphony despite not being the first to compose a symphony

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

musical genius and versatile composer who popularized piano

Ludwig van Beethoven

a famous composer of the classical age whose early works reflected the classical style and later began composing songs that leaned toward romanticism

Molière

one of the most famous French writers of the seventeenth century who is best remembered for his comedies, where he pokes fun at the hypocrisy and vices of society

Alexander Pope

English poet and satirist who was the most quoted poet of his age and exposed the follies of his day through his witty satires

Jonathan Swift

a popular English satirist who was a master of prose and the author of Gulliver’s Travels

Daniel Defoe

the author of Robinson Crusoe, a contributor to the development of the modern novel

Samuel Richardson

author of Pamela and a contributor to the development of the modern novel

Edward Gibbon

English writer, critic of Christianity, and lover of classical culture who wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

Susanna Ann Wesley

the mother of John and Charles Wesley

Edmund Halley

Englishman who observed and studied a comet and accurately predicted how often it would appear (75 years)