Human dysfunction final

lymphatic system

defends the body

Functions of the defensive system

1. Maintenance of blood volume in
cardiovascular system

2. Transport of fats and fat-soluble material
from digestive system to cardiovascular
system

3. Filtration of foreign material to defend
against infection

skin

an effective detterent

tears and saliva

contains lysozyme (antibacterial enzyme)

ear wax

entraps microorganisms

mucus

entraps microorganisms

coughing, sneezing

removes mucus and microorganisms from the body

stomach

highly acidic, inhibits microorganisms

vagina

slightly acidic, inhibits some microorganisms

vomiting, urination, and defecation

remove microorganisms

resident bacteria

outcompete pathogens

complement system

a group of proteins that assists other defense mechanisms; enhances inflammation and phagocytosis; kills pathogens

phagocytes

neutrophils and microphages engulf and digest foreign cells; eosinophils bombard large parasites with digestive enzymes and phagocytize foreign proteins

inflammatory response

attracts phagocytes and promotes tissue healing. four characteristics include redness, warmth, swelling, and pain

natural killer cells

release chemicals (perforin and granzyme) that lead to the destruction of tumor cells and virus infected cells

interferons

stimulate the production of proteins that interfere with viral reproduction

fever

modest fever makes internal environment less hospitable to pathogens; fosters ability to fight infections

B cells

mature in bone marrow. responsible for anti body meditated immunity

plasma cells

produce and secrete specific antibodies

memory B cells

store information. upon subsequent exposure to a specific antigen, these cells proliferate and differentiate forming plasma cells that secrete antibodies and more memory cells

immunoglobulins

five classes of antibodies. every antibody has a unique shape that fits one specific antigen

T cells

mature in thymus. responsible for cell mediated immunity

helper T cells

produce cytokines. enhance immune responses by stimulating other immune cells

cytotoxic

attack and destroy abnormal cells with perforin and granzyme

memory T cells

store information. upon subsequent exposure to a specific antigen, are activated to become helper and cytotoxic T cells

cytokines

a class of signaling molecules that stimulate various immune system activities

antigens

any substance that triggers an immune response

phagocytosis

process by which cells engulf and digest particles (as a immune response)

immune memory

creates immunity

Primary immune response

• Occurs on first exposure to antigen
• Characteristics:
• Lag time (delay) of 3–6 days for antibody
production
• Antibody production peaks at 10–12 day

secondary immune response

• Occurs on second or subsequent exposures to
antigen
• Characteristics:
• Minimal lag time (hours)
• Antibody level (titer) rises much more quickly
• Much more antibody is produced
• Antibody levels stay elevated longer
• Due to long-lived memory cells produced during
primary response

allergies

inappropriate immune reaction (hypersensitivity) to an antigen that isn’t posing a risk to the body

the reaction causes symptoms ranging from a mild to life threatening

autoimmune disorders

immune system fails to distinguish between “self” and “non self” and mounts a harmful immune response against self proteins or cells

sensitizing exposure

allergen activates immune system (B cells) to produce specific antibodies

subsequent exposure

• Allergen trigger the sensitized cells to release histamine
• Allergy symptoms and inflammation
• Reactions may be localized or systemic
• Localized: affect only the area exposed
• Systemic: affect several organ systems
• Anaphylactic shock: severe life-threatening systemic
reaction (difficulty breathing, circulatory collapse, drop
in blood pressure)

allergy treatments

• Antihistamines—treatment of mild to moderate reactions
• Epinephrine injection—treatment of anaphylactic shock
• Allergy shots

functions of nose and pharynx

• Provide a passageway for
respiration
• Location of smell receptors
• Filter larger foreign material from
incoming air, inhaled
microorganisms are entrapped in
mucus
• Moisten (Humidify) and warm
incoming air
• Provide resonating chambers for
voice

Bronchi

• Trachea branches into right and left bronchi
• Contain ciliated epithelia, smooth muscle, cartilage

bronchioles

smaller branches, lack cartridge

Functions of bronchi and bronchioles

• Transporting air
• Cleaning, warming, and humidifying incoming air
• Cleansing activity of cilia and mucus: mucus traps debris
which cilia sweeps up to the pharynx
• Cilia are damaged by smoking, contributing to the
development of smoker’s cough

alveoli

tiny air filled sacs clustered at end of terminal bronchioles, walls are composed of only one cell layer

2 factors affecting binding of hemoglobin to o2

1. concentration= lungs high and bings hemoglobin, tissues is low and hemoglobin releases

2. pH = lungs neutral , tissues= acidic

deoxyhemoglobin

not carrying o2 (dark red/ maroon)

oxyhemoglobin

carrying o2 (bright red)

inspiration/ expiration

air in and out cycle

relaxed state

diaphragm and intercostal muscles relaxed

inspiration

diaphragm contracts, pulling down; intercostal muscles contract, elevating chest walls and lung volume increases and lowers pressure in pleural cavity, pressure in lungs decrease, air rushes in

expiration

muscles relax; diaphragm resumes dome shape; intercostal muscles allow chest to lower; lung volume decreases and air pressure increases, air flows out

asthma

spasmodic contraction of bronchi, causes by episodic allergic responses

emphysema

alveoli permanently damaged. breathless due to decreased surface area for gas exchange

bronchitis

inflammation or bronchi

• maybe acute or chronic

cystic fibrosis

autosomal recessive, abnormally thick mucus, frequent pulmonary infections

peristalsis

propels food forward esophagus

segmentation

mixes food , stomach / small intestines