ap psychology 5.4 (classifying psychological disorders)

Neurodevelopmental Disorders:

 are a group of conditions that typically manifest early in development, often before the child enters grade school.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

affects executive functions, including planning, organization, & impulse control.

Inattention

• Difficulty sustaining attention, failing to follow through on tasks, disorganization, distractibility, forgetfulness in daily activities 

Hyperactivity

• Fidgeting, inability to stay seated, excessive talking, running or climbing in inappropriate situations 

Impulsivity

• : Interrupting others, difficulty waiting for a turn, making hasty decisions without considering the consequences

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

 affects how individuals perceive and interact with the world.

Social Communication Difficulties

•  Challenges with reciprocal social interaction, understanding nonverbal communication, and developing relationships

Restricted & Repetitive Behaviors

• Repetitive movements, insistence on sameness, restricted interests, and hyper-or hypo-reactivity to sensory input 

Genetic Factors:

family and twin studies provide evidence for heritability

Environmental Factors

• : prenatal exposure to toxins, infections, and stress can increase risk (teratogens)

Physiological Factors:

Abnormal brain development, neurotransmitter imbalances

Interactions Between Factors

• these disorders are often the result of a complex interaction between all factors mentioned

Schizophrenia

A brain disorder that disrupts a person’s ability to think, feel, and behave in a healthy and typical way. 

Acute schizophrenia

•  severe & sudden onset of symptoms 

Chronic schizophrenia:

long-term, persistent and severe symptoms that significantly impair one’s life

Positive Symptoms:

 presence of abnormal behaviors (hallucinations; delusions; disorganized speech; inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage)

Negative Symptoms:

• absence of normal behaviors (toneless voice, expressionless face, rigid body)

Delusions

 are fixed, false beliefs that are not aligned with reality and are resistant to reasoning or contrary evidence.

Delusions of persecution

persistent, troubling, false beliefs that one is about to be harmed or mistreated by others in some way.

Delusions of grandeur

individual believes they have exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame

Delusions of reference

the mistaken belief that normal events or behaviors have hidden meanings that relate to the individual experiencing the delusions

Hallucinations

Perceptions of stimuli that aren’t actually present.

Disorganized Thinking and Speech: 

 is characterized by incoherent or fragmented thought processes, often resulting in disorganized speech. Individuals may exhibit tangential thinking (straying from the topic), loose associations (disconnected ideas), or neologisms (invented words).

Paranoia

delusions of persecution (believing others are out to get you)

Hallucinations

 perceptions of stimuli that aren’t actually present

Auditory

• hearing voices making insulting remarks or giving orders

Disorganized Motor Behavior: 

Encompasses a range of abnormal movements and behaviors, including agitation, and unpredictable or inappropriate actions.

Catatonia

•  lack of movement or response

Negative Symptoms

refer to a reduction or absence of normal emotional and behavioral functions. Common negative symptoms include flat affect (reduced emotional expression), alogia (poverty of speech), and avolition (lack of motivation).

Flat affect

• an emotionless state; no facial expression

Catatonic Stupor

• psycho-motor immobility (rigid, won’t move)

Dopamine overactivity

 excess number of dopamine receptors

Neurochemical Factors

Imbalances in neurotransmitters, particularly dopamine and glutamate, are implicated in the development of schizophrenia.

Antipsychotic drugs

calm psychosis, they block dopamine activity

Tardive dyskinesia

• involuntary movements of the facial muscles (such as grimacing), tongue, and limbs caused by longtime use of antipsychotic drugs.

Genetic Factors: 

Schizophrenia has a hereditary component, with genetic predisposition increasing the risk.

Environmental Factors

 Environmental stressors, such as prenatal exposure to infections, malnutrition, or psychosocial stressors during adolescence, may interact with genetic predispositions to trigger the onset of schizophrenia.

Psychosocial Factors: 

Stressful life events can trigger onset in individuals with a predisposition

Depressive Disorders

“The presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood, accompanied by related changes that significantly affect the individual’s capacity to function.”

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): 

A period of at least 2 weeks during which there is either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities.

Depressed Mood:

• Persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, or hopelessness.

Anhedonia

•  Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed.

Changes in Weight or Appetite:

Significant weight loss or gain, or changes in appetite.

Sleep Disturbances

• Insomnia or hypersomnia (excessive sleep).

Fatigue

Persistent feelings of tiredness or lack of energy.

Feelings of Worthlessness

Excessive or inappropriate feelings of guilt or worthlessness.

Cognitive Impairment:

•  Difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or thinking clearly.

Psychomotor Agitation:

• Restlessness or slowed movements and speech.

Suicidal Ideation:

• Recurrent thoughts of death, suicidal thoughts, or suicide attempts

Persistent Depressive Disorder (PDD):

A more chronic form of depression with the mood disturbance lasting for at least 2 years in adults and 1 year in children/adolescents.

Chronic Depressed Mood

A low, dark, or sad mood that persists over time.

Appetite and Weight Changes:

• Poor appetite or overeating.

Biological Factors-

• hormonal changes, neurotransmitter imbalances (serotonin, norepinephrine, & dopamine which regulate mood and emotional responses.

Genetic Factors-

•  evidenced by familial and twin studies 

Social Factors

• life stressors, relationships, socioeconomic status (losso of a loved one, financial difficulties).

Cultural Factors

•  influence HOW depression is experienced or expressed (cultural norms shape attitudes around mental health, emotions, and seeking help).

Behavioral Theories

• depression can be a result of history of negative reinforcement & lack of positive reinforcement.

Cognitive Theories

•  focus on how negative thought patterns & distorted beliefs contribute to depression

Bipolar Disorders

Disorders characterized by fluctuation between episodes of mania or hypomania and episodes of depression.

Bipolar I Disorder:

a disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.

Manic Episode

 a period of extremely energetic, happy, or irritable moods that last for at least a week and deviate from normal positive moods.

psychosis

disruptions to a person's thoughts and perceptions that make it difficult for them to recognize what is real and what isn’t.

Depressive Episode

Same criteria as Major Depressive Disorder

Bipolar II Disorder:

a disorder in which a person alternates between hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes.

Hypomanic Episode

Same as manic episode except:
Only requires presence of three symptoms

• The episode is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social or occupational functioning or to necessitate hospitalization

• The episode does not include psychosis

Depressive Episodes: 

• Last longer and cause greater impairment than hypomanic episodes

Anxiety Disorders:

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Disorder characterized by chronic, constant worry in almost all situations

Panic Disorder

disorder characterized by intense fear and anxiety in the absence of danger that is accompanied by strong physical symptoms

Panic attack

an abrupt surge of intense fear or panic.

Ataque de Nervios”

characterized by sudden onset of intense emotional distress & physical symptoms, often in response to a traumatic event.

Specific Phobias

 a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.

Agoraphobia

 fearing and avoiding places or situations that might cause panic and feelings of being trapped or helpless.

Acrophobia

fear of heights

Arachnophobia

fear of spiders

Social Anxiety Disorder

Characterized by irrational fear or anxiety about social interactions.

Taijin Kyofusho (TK)

characterized by intense fear of offending or embarrassing others through one’s appearance or behavior

Learned Associations

•  based on classical conditioning. AD can develop when a person associates specific stimuli with fearful/anxious responses

Maladaptive Thinking

Cognitive distortions/irrational beliefs that contribute to the maintenance & exacerbation of AD

Biological & Genetic Factors

• Genetics can contribute to a person’s susceptibility to anxiety by influencing brain chemistry/structure