Developmental Psych Lifespan

How is maturity reached in continuous development?

A continuous process of learning like a slope. Children think like adults and gradually build skills that were there to begin with.

How is maturity reached in discontinuous development?

A staged process of learning where it takes place in steps. Children think differently than adults and understanding of the world emerges at different times.

What are the assumptions of the Lifespan perspective?

Development is lifelong, multidimensional and multidirectional, highly plastic, and affected by interacting forces.

What are cohorts, and what type of influence forms them?

Cohorts are groups of people born around the same time and the influence that forms them is worldly influences like marriage and birthing rates as well schooling and wartime.

Charles Darwin is considered the forefather of scientific child study because his observations of similar prenatal development led others to look closer at children’s development. What were the two main emphases of his theory that led Darwin to study this?

There is infinite variation among species and no two individuals are exactly alike, in other words natural selection and survival of the fittest.

What pattern of behavior was observed by Ethological Psychologists, and what concept did it lead to?

The behavior of patterns that promote survival (such as imprinting) lead to the concept of the critical period, a limited time span where the individual is biologically prepared to acquire certain adaptive behaviors but needs support.

What is the emphasis and the main contributor to Sociocultural Theory

Emphasis on how the values, beliefs, customs, and skills of a social group are transmitted to the next generation, main contributor is Lev Vygotsky.

What is the emphasis and the main contributor to Ecological Systems Theory

Emphasis on viewing the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment, main contributor is Urie Bronfenbrenner.

What is the emphasis of Cognitive-Developmental Theory

Emphasis on children actively constructing knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world instead of their learning depending on reinforcers such as rewards.

What is the emphasis and the main contributor to Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

Emphasis on directly observable events like stimuli and responses. The main contributor is John Watson.

What is the emphasis of Lifespan perspective

Emphasis on assuming development is lifelong, multidimensional (effecting in multiple ways), multidirectional, and open to change.

What is the emphasis of Ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology

Emphasis on the adaptive value of behavior.

What is the emphasis of Information processing

Emphasis on viewing the mind as a complex symbol-manipulating system, much like a computer.

What is the emphasis of Psychoanalytic perspective

Emphasis on having people move through a series of stages in which they confront conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.

Steve sent a multiple-choice questionnaire to every student in his sociology class to determine what they considered the most helpful for studying. What common type of research method is he using?

Self-Report specifically structured interviews, questionnaires, and tests. This is because he’s having each participant answer the same questions the same way themselves.

What does a correlational design do, and what can it not do?

It gathers information in natural life circumstances, but they can’t do cause and effect.

Cora is doing research to determine academic performance is increased by listening to music with positive messages. Name the research design she is using and identify the dependent and independent variables.

She is doing an experimental design because she is manipulating the independent variable (music with different types of messages) and seeing the effect on the dependent variable (her academic performance).

How are Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional studies different, and how are they similar?

Longitudinal is with the same group of people at different times/stages while cross-sectional is with different groups of different ages at the same point in time. However, they both collect data on trends and population

Considering Vygotsky’s theory, how does social interaction contribute to the development of thinking and behavior within a culture?

Social interaction allows children to learn cultural norms, language, and problem-solving skills through guidance and collaboration with more knowledgeable others

In what ways do behaviorism and social learning theory explain how individuals actively contribute to their own development?

Individuals shape their development by choosing behaviors, observing others, and responding to rewards, punishments, and modeled actions in their environment

How do children’s thinking patterns change across Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development?

In the Sensorimotor Stage (birth–2 years), thinking is tied to senses and physical actions, and the key achievement is object permanence (knowing objects exist when out of sight). In the Preoperational Stage (2–7 years), thinking becomes symbolic through language and play, but remains egocentric, magical, and lacks conservation. In the Concrete Operational Stage (7–11 years), logical thinking emerges and children understand conservation and reversibility, though thinking remains tied to physical, tangible situations. In the Formal Operational Stage (12+ years), abstract and hypothetical thinking develops, allowing adolescents to reason deductively, consider "what-if" scenarios, and think scientifically.

Why is the environment considered dynamic and constantly changing in Bronfenbrenner’s theory?

The environment is made up of multiple interacting systems that influence each other over time, causing continuous change in a child’s development

What evidence suggests that infants and preschoolers may be more cognitively capable than Piaget originally believed?

Research shows that young children can understand object permanence, number, and cause-and-effect earlier than Piaget proposed when tested with more sensitive methods

How does information-processing theory describe the way the human mind handles and organizes information?

The mind is viewed as a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information, similar to a computer processing data

How do Freud and Erikson incorporate cultural context into their understanding of development?

Erikson emphasized cultural and social influences across the lifespan, while Freud focused more on universal biological drives with less attention to cultural variation

How do indirect environmental influences affect a child’s development compared to direct interactions?

Indirect influences, such as parents’ workplaces or social networks, shape a child’s experiences by impacting the people and environments they interact with directly

Why is balance in parental response to a child’s needs important in Freud’s psychosexual stages?

Too much or too little gratification can lead to fixation, which may affect personality and behavior later in life

How does evolutionary psychology explain development beyond just biological factors?

It considers how inherited traits interact with environmental conditions to shape behaviors that support survival and reproduction

In a correlational design, researchers .

gather information on individuals without altering their experiences

According to ecological systems theory, interactions between Marina and her child, Tyler, occur in the .

microsystem

Max, age 65, learned to play the piano at a local senior center. Max demonstrates that .

development is plastic at all ages

Toby moved with his family just before he entered fourth grade. In ecological systems theory, the move represents a change in Toby’s .

chronosystem

The first successful intelligence test was originally constructed to .

identify children with learning problems who needed to be placed in special classes

developmental cognitive neuroscience

explores how the mind changes as children grow up, examining the environmental and biological influences on the developing brain

The outermost level of Bronfenbrenner’s model is the .

macrosystem

Dr. Rizvi studies the relationship between changes in the brain and the developing person’s cognitive processing and behavior patterns. She is part of a group of researchers from the fields of psychology, biology, neuroscience, and medicine. This approach to development is known as .

developmental cognitive neuroscience

Dr. Torrez believes that how conflicts are resolved between biological drives and social expectations determines the person’s ability to learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety. Dr. Torrez accepts the .

psychoanalytic perspective

Piaget’s critics point out that                             .

his stagewise account pays insufficient attention to social and cultural influences

Piaget’s cognitive-developmental theory, information processing, and Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory all stress

changes in thinking

Dr. Wu observes children’s responses to bullying by watching them play in a park. This is an example of a(n)                             .

naturalistic observation

Ethnographic research is directed toward understanding a culture through                             observation.

participant

People born during the baby boom between 1946 and 1964 tend to be alike in ways that set them apart from people born at other times due to                              influences.

history-graded

What do Chromosomes do and how do they differ between males and females? How do sex cells differ in chromosomes from somatic cells?

Chromosomes store and transmit genetic information and come in 23 matching pairs. Males and females have different sets of chromosomes, XY for males, and XX for female. However somatic mutations can cause these to mutate.

Tom and Alina are pregnant with fraternal (dizygotic) twins. They want to know what the fertilization process was for this result, and how it would have been different if the twins were identical.

Fraternal twins result when 2 ova are released and fertilized. Howev3r identical twins result when a zygote separates into 2 clusters of cells that develop into 2 children.

Hunter was born without the ability to properly digest many proteins. Using the chart of Autosomal Diseases, determine which one Hunter suffers from and what his parents will need to do.

Hunter most likely has Phenylketonuria where the body has the inability to metabolize phenylamine, which is an amino acid found in many proteins. His parents will need to put him on a special diet which will result in an average intelligence and normal lifespan, but some subtle deficits till might come up.

Sandy is a 28-year-old woman, pregnant with her first child. Approximately what is the probability that her child will be born with Down Syndrome? At what maternal age does this probability increase?

Down system occurs in 1 out of every 700 live births, however it rises sharply after age 35.

Mandy and Terence have been trying to get pregnant for more than a year, and are wondering if something is wrong, and if so, what they can do to overcome that challenge. What are the two main reproductive technologies? Which method would you recommend, and why? What kind of difficulties can they expect their child to have if they adopted instead?

They could first go to genetic counseling to get advice and possibly see what’s wrong and investigate reproductive technologies. The two main reproductive technologies are donor insemination and vitro fertilization. It’s recommended to try donor insemination first since vitro fertilization can be hard on the mother during surgery. It’s important to realize that with adoptive children, they usually have more learning and emotional difficulties.

Casey and Candie are High-SES parents that value education. What traits are they likely to emphasize, and what can they do to encourage academic achievement?

They are more likely to emphasis psychological traits, for example social maturity, self-direction, happiness, as well as cognitive maturity. To encourage academic achievements, they can encourage their children to explore with warmth and praise, helping with explanations when needed

There are several sociocultural benefits to Extended-family households. What can extended-family households focus on in their homes to create strong cultures?

They provide emotional support and share each other’s essential resources. This creates a strong bond between them, reducing stress of poverty and single parenthood. This can help share trust and culture in between family members by putting more emphasis on cooperation and values, especially with education.

Social Security benefits and Medicare are US programs directed at assisting the elderly. What is the result for those who only live off of these programs?

The benefits of social security are rarely enough for retirement income, so they must get help from other people, opportunities, or savings. However most don’t have these resources.

Dana is doing a kinship study on intelligence. What does this mean, and how likely are her results to be positive and accurate?

Kinships compare the characteristics of family members, so she’s looking at the difference in intelligence between family members. Her results will probably be all over the place and hard to tell if they’re accurate, since kinship studies on intelligence are one of the most cont4rivral findings in that field

Passive correlation

Things children don’t have control over, for example their parents being athletes might make a child a swimmer.

Evocative correlation

Things that are influenced by the child’s heredity. For example, a child who’s cooperative will get more patience compared to one who’s inattentive.

Active correlation

When a child seeks environments that fit their genetic tendencies, for example a teen who’s muscular spends more time on the sports team

Measure of the extent to which individual differences in complex traits in a specific population are due to genetic factors.

Heritability estimates

Comparison of the characteristics of family members.

Kinship studies

Because of their genetic makeup, individuals differ in their responsiveness to qualities of the environment.

Gene-environment interaction

Our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.

Genetic-environmental correlation

The tendency to actively choose environments that complement our heredity.

Niche-picking

Development resulting from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment.

Epigenesis

developmental science

a field that studies human development across the lifespan, drawing on biology, psychology, and sociology to understand how and why people change over time

age-graded influences

biological and social changes that occur at predictable ages, such as starting school or going through puberty

history-graded influences

events tied to a specific time in history that affect an entire generation, such as the Great Depression or the COVID-19 pandemic

nonnormative influences

unusual events that happen to a particular individual but are not typical for most people, such as losing a parent at a young age or winning the lottery

four assumptions of the lifespan perspective

development is (1) lifelong, occurring at every age; (2) multidimensional, involving body, mind, and relationships; (3) plastic, meaning it has capacity for change; and (4) shaped by multiple interacting forces including biology, history, and culture

Freud's psychosexual theory

a theory proposing that children move through five stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) in which the id, ego, and superego develop and unconscious drives shape personality

information processing theory

a theory that seeks to understand how individuals take in, store, and retrieve information, comparing the mind to a computer to explain cognitive development

critical period

a specific time during which an organism must be exposed to a certain stimulus or experience for normal development to occur; if missed, the development cannot occur properly later

sensitive period

a time that is optimal for certain developments but not the only time they can occur; development is possible outside this window but may be more difficult

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory

Lev Vygotsky believed that children learn to think and behave through social interaction with more knowledgeable members of their culture, especially through language and guided participation

ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner's theory that development is shaped by five nested levels of environment: microsystem (immediate settings), mesosystem (connections between microsystems), exosystem (indirect settings), macrosystem (cultural values and laws), and chronosystem (changes over time)

naturalistic observation

a research method in which the researcher observes people in their natural environment; strength is high ecological validity; limitation is lack of control and possible observer bias

structured observation

participants are observed in a lab setting where conditions are the same for everyone; strength is control and consistency; limitation is that behavior may not reflect real-life actions

self-report methods

data collected through interviews or questionnaires; strength is access to internal thoughts and feelings; limitation is that participants may not respond honestly or accurately

clinical or case study method

an in-depth study of a single individual using interviews, observation, and testing; strength is rich detail; limitation is that findings may not apply to others

ethnography

the researcher lives with and observes a cultural group over time; strength is deep cultural understanding; limitation is that it is time-consuming and findings may not generalize

two types of research designs

developmental researchers use correlational designs and experimental designs

correlational design

a research design that examines relationships between variables as they naturally exist; it cannot establish cause and effect, only whether variables are related and in what direction

experimental design

a design in which researchers randomly assign participants to conditions, manipulate an independent variable, and measure its effect on a dependent variable to establish cause and effect

genotype

the genetic makeup of an individual, including all genes inherited from both parents, whether or not those genes are expressed

phenotype

the observable characteristics of an individual, resulting from the interaction of genotype and environment

monozygotic twins

identical twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two; they share 100% of their genes

dizygotic twins

fraternal twins who develop from two separately fertilized eggs; they share about 50% of their genes, like any other siblings

gametes

reproductive cells (sperm and egg) that each contain 23 chromosomes; when united, they form a zygote with 46 chromosomes

sex chromosomes

the 23rd pair of chromosomes that determines biological sex; females have two X chromosomes (XX) and males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY)

dominant-recessive inheritance

when two different alleles are present for a trait, the dominant allele determines the phenotype and the recessive allele is not expressed; a recessive trait only appears when two recessive alleles are inherited

Down syndrome

a chromosomal disorder caused by the presence of an extra 21st chromosome (trisomy 21), resulting in intellectual disability, distinctive physical features, and increased risk of health problems; risk increases with maternal age

parental involvement in schooling

when parents are actively engaged in their child's education, children show higher academic achievement, better motivation, stronger social skills, and lower dropout rates

collectivism

a cultural value system that emphasizes group goals, interdependence, and cooperation over individual achievement; common in many Asian, African, and Latin American cultures

individualism

a cultural value system that emphasizes personal autonomy, independence, and self-expression over group needs; common in Western cultures such as the United States

challenges for senior citizens in the US

older adults face poverty, inadequate healthcare, social isolation, and ageism; US policies such as Social Security and Medicare help but are often insufficient to meet all the needs of a growing elderly population

heritability

a statistical estimate of how much of the variation in a trait within a population is due to genetic differences; heritability studies often use twin and adoption research; heritability is not fixed and can change with environment

passive gene-environment correlation

occurs when parents provide both genes and an environment that match, without any action from the child (e.g., musically talented parents raise a child in a music-rich home)

evocative gene-environment correlation

occurs when a child's genetically influenced traits draw out certain responses from others (e.g., a sociable child receives more social interaction from peers and adults)

active gene-environment correlation

occurs when children seek out environments that fit their genetic tendencies; also called niche-picking

niche-picking

the tendency for individuals to actively select environments that are compatible with their genetic predispositions; becomes more prominent as children grow older

epigenetics

the study of changes in gene expression caused by environmental factors without altering the DNA sequence itself; research shows that experiences such as stress, nutrition, and parenting can turn genes on or off

prenatal developmental periods

the germinal period (0–2 weeks): fertilization and implantation; the embryonic period (2–8 weeks): formation of major organs and body structures; the fetal period (9 weeks to birth): rapid growth and refinement of all organ systems

teratogens

any environmental agent (drug, disease, or radiation) that can harm the developing embryo or fetus; impact depends on dose, timing of exposure, genetic vulnerability, and presence of other harmful factors

effects of high caffeine doses in pregnancy

high caffeine intake is linked to miscarriage, low birth weight, and preterm birth; caffeine crosses the placenta and the fetus metabolizes it very slowly