Biological Bases of Behavior (The Brain)

evolutionary psychology

the study of how psychological traitsa nd behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproduce success

natural selection

the process by which organisms with traits that are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

Nature

The inherent biological/genetic factors that influence an individual’s psychological development, traits, behaviors, and cognitive abilities. 

Nurture

the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual’s psychological development, behaviors, and cognitive processes

Twin Studies

examines similarities and differences between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and evironment on traits and behavior

Adoption studies

investigates similarities between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behavioars

Family studies

analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behavior within a family unit

Heredity

the transmission of genetic info from biological parents to offspring

Heritability

In psychology, it helps us figure out how much of our traits come from our genes and how much comes from our environment

Genetic Predisposition

the inherited likelihood of developing specific traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic quality of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable ones

Cerebral cortex

the outer layer of the brain resposible for higher-level cognitive functions, including thinking, perceiving, and decision making; is highly folded to increase surface area allowing for complex neural processing and integration of information

Lobes of the brain

the lobes of the brain refer to the 4 main regions or sections into which the cerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, is divided

Association Areas

their the parts of the brain that take info from all over the place- like what we see, hear, smell, and touch- and put it together to help us understand the world around us

Frontal Lobe

located at the front of the brain and is involved in higher level congnitive functioning including decision-making, problem solving, planning, and personality expression

Prefrontal Cortex

a region of the brain located in the frntal lobe, responsible for higher-level cognitive functions and executive functioning

Executive functioning

a set of cognitive processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

Motor Cortex

region of the brain located in the frontal lobe responsible for planning, executing, and controlling voluntary movements of the body

Parietal Lobes

located at top of the brain and primarily responsible for processing sensory info from body such as touch, temperature, and spatial awareness

Somatosensory Cortex

region of the brain located in the parietal lobe, responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints

occipital lobes

located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information received from the eyes; contains visual cortex

visual cortex

interprets visual stimuli and help us perceive shapes, color, and motion

temporal lobes

located at one of the sides of the brain and involved in processing auditory info, language, comprehension, and memory formation; contains auditory cortex

Auditory cortex

interprets sound signals from the ears

Corpus Callosum

thick band of nerve fibers that connext the left and right hemispheres of the brain, facilitating communication and info sharing between the two hemispheres

Brainstem

the oldest and most primitive part of the brain, responsible for basic life-sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep wake cycles; serves as a pathway for neural signals traveling between the brain and the rest of the body, connecting the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord

Medulla

vital structure located at the base of the brainstem regulating essential autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and blood pressue; serves as a relay station for nerve signal between the brain and the spinal cord, controlling involuntary bodily processes crucial for survival

Reticular Activating System

a network of neurons located in the brainstem that plays a critical role in regulating arousal, attentention, and consciousness

Cerebellum

located at back of brain, below the cerebral hemppispheres, responsible for coordinating movement, balance, and posture; fine tune motor movements and endure smooth coordination

Limbic system

located beneath the cerebral cortex; is a set of brain structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation

Reward Center

network of brain structures, primarily located in the limbic system, that processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

Thalamus

a relay station in the brian that processes and relays sensory info such as sight, sound, touch, and taste, to the cerebral cortex; acts as a gateway for sensory input, directing signals to the appropriate areas of the brain for futher processing

Hypothalamus

a small but powerful structure located below the thalamus, resposible for regulating various essential bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep-wake cycle; serves as a control center to help maintain homeostasis in the body

Pituitary Gland

small pea sized gland located at the base of the brain, often referred to as the “master gland’ due to its central role in regulating hormone production and secretion throughout the body; plays a critical role in coordinating hormonal activity and maintaining homeostasis in the body

Hippocampus

curved structure located within the brain’s temporal lobes, primarily repsonsible for forming and consolidating new memories

Amygdala

small almond shaped sturcture located deep within the brain’s temporal lobes, involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression; plays a central role in the brain’s threat detection system, triggering the body’s fight or flight response to perceived danger

The nervous system

body’s communication network consisting of complex systems of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells

Central Nervous System

include the brain and spinal cord; serves as the command center of the body responsible for processing info, coordinating responses, and regulating bodily functions; the spinal cord is a vital pathway for transmitting sensory info

Peripheral Nervous System

consists of all the nerves and ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord; communication network, transmitting sensory info from body to CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

division of PNS that regulates involuntary bodily functions; operates automatically without conscious control; 2 main branches: sympathetic and parasympathetic

Sympathetic Nervous System

responsible for activating the body’s fight or flight response in times of stress or danger; increases heart rate, dilates airwayss, and redirects blood flow to essentail organs, preparing the body to respond to perceived threats

Parasympathetic Nervous System

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

Somatic Nervous System

division of PNS responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory info from the body to the CNS

Neurons

specialized cell that serves at the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throught the body; 3 main parts: cell body(soma), dendrites, and axon

Glial Cells

the “support cells” that provide structural support, insulation, and nourishment to neurons; plays essential roles in maintaining brain healtha dn supporting neuronal function

Motor neurons

nerve cells that transmit signals from CNS to muscles, glands, and organs initiating adn controlling voluntary and involuntary movements; receive commands ffrom CNS and conveys signals to muscles, causing them to contract or relax

Sensory Neurons

specialized nerve cells that transmit sensory infor from sensory receptor such as those in skin, muscles, and organs, to CNS; detect various stimuli including touch, temp, and envrionmental changes, and convert stimuli into electrical signals that can be processes by the brain

Inteneurons

nerve cells that serve as connectors within the CNS, relaying signals between sensory neurons and motor neurons

Reflex Arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions, allowing for rapid, autonomic responses to sensory stimuli without conscious thought(primitive reflexes); sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to spinal cord. Interneurons relay this info to motor neurons which trigger reflexive muscles or gland responses, such as withdrawing a hand from a hot surface; protext body and enable quick reactions to potential dangers

Neural Transmission

the process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals

Threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron; the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response

Actions Potential

brief electrical impulse that travels along the axon of a neuron; occurs when neuron receives a stimulus that causes the inside of the cell to become more positively charged than the outside

All-or-nothing principle

states that once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength; if stimulus is strong enough to trigger an action potential, the neyrons will respond with a full-strength impulse

Depolarization

phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as soidum ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane; electrical charge triggers the neuron to fire an action potential, initiating the transmission of an electrical impulse along the neuron’s axon

Refractory Period

brief period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential; occurs because the neuron’s sodium channels are temporarily inactivated and the cell membrane returns to its resting state

Reuptake

process in which neurotransmitter that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released

Resting Poential

the stable, negative electrical charge that exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it is not actively transmiting signals; maintained by unequal distriubtion of ions, with more sodium ions outside cell an dmore potassium ions inside cell

Multiple Sclerosis “MS”

chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS; cocurs when immune system mistankenly attacks a protective myelin sheath, a fatty substance that surrounds and insulates nerve fibers, causing inflammation and damage

Myathenia Gravis

chronic autoimmune disorder taht affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to muscles; occurs when immune system produces antibodies that block or destroy the receptor for acetycholine, a neurotransmitter that stimulates muscle contraction

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system; released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic cleft where they bind to specific receptor sites or postsynaptic neurons initiating or inhibiting a neural impulse

Excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an active potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron; bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane, causing depolarization and making the neuron more likely to fire an action potential

Glutamate

the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS playing a key role in synaptic transmission and neuronal communication. It is involved in various brain functions including learning, memory, and neural plasticity.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

chemicals released by neurons that decrease likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron

GABA

a neurotransmitter that acts as the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It promotes relazation and reduces anxiety.

Dopamine

a neurotransmitter that plays a crucial role in regulating mood, reward, nutrition, and movement; dopamine pathways are replicated in the experience of pleasure and reward making it a key neurotransmitter in the brain’s reward system

Serotonin

neurotransmitter that plays a vital role in regulating mood, sleep, appetite, and stress; essential neurotransmitter for mental health

Endorphins

neurotransmitter produced by brain and CNS that acts as a natural pain reliever and mood enhancers

substance p

neurotransmitter involved in transmitting pain signals in the nervous system; fibromyalgia: chronic pain disorder

Acetylcholine

neurotransmitter that plays fundamental role in PNS and CNS; involved in various functions including muscle contractions, memory, and learning; ex: ADHD

hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream to target cells or organs where they regulate variuos phsyiological processes and behaviors

Ghrelin

hormone prodiuced primarily by stomach and small intestine that stimulate appetite and promotes hunger

Leptin

hormone produced primarily by fat cells that regulates energy, balance, and appetite; acts on hypothalamus in the brain to suppress appetite and increase energy expenditure

Melatonin

hormone that regulates the sleep wake cycle and circadian rhythms in th ebody

oxytocin

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key role in socila bonding due to its involvement in forming emotional connections, trust, and intimacy

adrenaline

hormone and neurotransmitter that plays a key rol ein the body’s stress repsonse, often known as the “fight or flight” response

nonepinephrine

neurotransmitter and hormone involved in body’s “fight ro flight” response, regulating arousal, attention, and stress; critical role in increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness during times of stress and danger

Plasticity

refers to the brain’s ability to reoganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes. through processes like synaptic pruning, sprouting of ner connections, and changes in neural pathways, the brain can adapt and rewire itself to regain lost functions or learn new ones

Split Brain Research

studies individuals who have undergone a surgical procedure called corpus callosotomy, which disconnects the two hemispheres of the brain. primarily down as a treatment for severe epilepsy

Epulepsy

it is a neurological disorder characterized by recurrents seizures, which can sometimes originate from abnormal electrical activity spreading between the two hemispheres of the brain

Contralateral Hempispheric organization

the phenomenon where each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body; means sensory info received by 1 side of the body is processes by the opposite hemisphere of the brain

Hemispheric Specialization

explored through split rbain research referring to the concept that each hemisphere of the brain has specialized functions and abilities; research helps uncover the distinct roles of each hemisphere in tasks such as language processing, spatial awareness, and motor control

Linguistic processing

a complex cognitive process involved in understanding and producing language

Broca’s Area

located in the left hemisphere of the brain, specifically in the frontal lobes, responsible for speech production and language processing; crucial role in formation of gramatically correct sentences and coordination of the muscles involved in speech

Broca’s Aphasia

language disorder caused by damage to Broca’s Area, resulting oftenly from stroke or brain injury; have difficulty producing fluent speech and forming gramatically correct sentences; speech may be slow, effortful, and characterized by shortened phrases of words

Wernicke’s Area

region located in the left hemisphere in the temporal lobe; involved in language comprehension and understanding spoken and written language; helps to interpret meaning of words and sentences, allowing individuals to comprehend and process language

Wernicke’s Aphasia

language disorder caused by Wernicke’s area damage typically resulting from stroke or brain injury; exhbit fluent speech but have difficulty understanding spoken and written language as well as producing emaningful and coherent speech; may use nonsensical or inappropriate communication challenging

Electroencephalogram “EEG”

noninvasive neuroimaging technique used to record the electrical activity of the prain; involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect and measure the electrical signals produced by neurons in the brain; commonly used to distiniguish adn monitor various seurological conditions such as epilepsy, sleep disorders, and brain injuriesF

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imagine (fMRI)

neuroimaging technique used to measure brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow and oxygen levels; provides detailed images of the brain’s structure and function, allowing researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during specific tasks or stimuliLe

Lesioning

research technique used to study brain function by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals; can be achieved through methods such as surgical removal, chemical injection, or electrical simulation