Body Systems test 2 content

Flashcards covering COVID-19 transmission and pathogenesis, respiratory physiology and diseases, endocrine system functions and pathologies, and renal physiology including CKD and diabetes management.

COVID Incubation Period

A period of approximately $5$ days from infection to the onset of symptoms.

Guillain-Barré syndrome

A temporary paralysis condition that can occur as a neurological complication of COVID-19.

Multisystem inflammatory syndrome

A condition occurring in some individuals after COVID-19 infection involving inflammation across multiple organ systems.

Antigenic drift or shift

Mechanisms of viral mutation that can lead to the emergence of new strains, such as the Omicron variant.

Hazard ratio

The ratio of how often a specific event occurs in one group relative to another group.

Conducting zone

The portion of the airway from the trachea to the terminal bronchiole that warms, humidifies, and filters air without gas exchange.

Respiratory zone

The area where gas exchange occurs, comprising respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs.

FEV1 (Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 second)

The maximum amount of air a person can forcefully exhale within the first second of a forced breath.

FVC (Forced Vital Capacity)

The total amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled from the lungs after taking the deepest breath possible.

Obstructive Lung Disease

A category of respiratory disease characterized by difficulty getting air out of the lungs (low airflow), often compared to breathing through a straw.

Restrictive Lung Disease

A category of respiratory disease characterized by difficulty getting air into the lungs, resulting in significantly reduced lung volumes.

Emphysema

A subtype of COPD involving the destruction of alveolar walls without fibrosis, often resulting in large holes that trap air.

Chronic bronchitis

A subtype of COPD defined by a chronic productive cough for more than $3$ months, involving inflammation and mucus overgrowth.

Alpha 1 antitrypsin deficiency

A genetic condition involving a protease inhibitor deficiency that can lead to early-onset emphysema and liver cirrhosis.

Bronchiectasis

A condition characterized by chronically dilated and thickened walls of the major bronchi and bronchioles.

Extrinsic asthma

A form of asthma triggered by allergies, involving immediate type 1 hypersensitivity and high levels of $IgE$.

Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

A progressive and fatal lung disease associated with the $MUC5A$ gene and characterized by 'honeycombing' of parenchymal tissue.

Pneumoconiosis

A restrictive interstitial lung disease caused by the inhalation of dust, such as silica, asbestos, or beryllium.

Humoral Release

A mechanism of hormone release that occurs in response to changing levels of ions or nutrients in the blood.

Peptide Hormones

Hydrophilic, water-soluble hormones that are stored in secretory granules and bind to cell surface receptors like G-protein coupled receptors.

Steroid Hormones

Hydrophobic, lipid-soluble hormones derived from cholesterol that bind to intracellular receptors to alter DNA transcription.

Neurohypophysis

The posterior pituitary gland, which stores and releases oxytocin and anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) produced in the hypothalamus.

Adenohypophysis

The anterior pituitary gland, which produces and secretes hormones such as GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, and Prolactin.

Zona glomerulosa

The outermost layer of the adrenal cortex that produces mineralocorticoids, primarily Aldosterone.

Zona fasciculata

The middle layer of the adrenal cortex that produces glucocorticoids, primarily Cortisol.

Zona reticularis

The innermost layer of the adrenal cortex that secretes androgens, which are precursors to sex hormones.

Addison’s disease

A primary adrenal insufficiency characterized by low levels of cortisol and aldosterone, often leading to hyperpigmentation due to high ACTH.

Cushing’s syndrome

A condition caused by glucocorticoid excess, leading to symptoms like central obesity (buffalo hump, moon face) and hyperglycaemia.

Thyroglobulin

A protein colloid stored in thyroid follicles that serves as the precursor for thyroid hormones.

Hashimoto’s disease

An autoimmune disorder causing the destruction of thyroid receptors or epithelia, leading to hypothyroidism.

Graves’ disease

An autoimmune condition where antibodies attack TSH receptors, causing overproduction of thyroid hormones and hyperthyroidism.

Exophthalmos

Bulging eyes caused by oedematous fluid retention behind the eyes, a common symptom of Graves' disease.

Osteoclasts

Bone-resorbing cells that break down bone tissue to increase serum calcium ($Ca^{2+}$) levels.

Osteoblasts

Bone-forming cells responsible for bone deposition, which decreases serum calcium ($Ca^{2+}$) levels.

Pinealocytes

Cells in the pineal gland that secrete melatonin rhythmically based on a $12$-hour light/dark cycle.

C-peptide

A portion of pro-insulin that must be proteolytically cleaved to produce active, mature insulin.

HbA1c (Glycated Hb)

A measure of the percentage of glucose attached to haemoglobin over several weeks, with levels ext{>} 6.5 ext{%} indicating diabetes.

Metformin

A first-line oral hypoglycaemic agent that primarily reduces hepatic gluconeogenesis and is characterized as weight neutral.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

The presence of kidney damage or decreased function (eGFR) for $3$ or more months.

Albuminuria

The presence of albumin in the urine, indicating kidney damage as the protein has leaked through the nephrons.

eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate)

The primary index for assessing overall kidney function, determined using serum creatinine concentration.

Podocytes

Specialized cells that form part of the filtration barrier in the glomerular capsule.

Juxtamedullary nephrons

Nephrons with long loops of Henle that extend deep into the medulla, specialized for conserving water and concentrating urine.

Micturition Reflex

The process of urination, initiated by the stretching of bladder walls which triggers parasympathetic contraction of the detrusor muscle.

CCN3

A newly discovered hormone secreted from the brain in lactating females that increases bone mass and facilitates fracture repair.