EXSS 181 Exam 2

for my midterm :, )

Psychological Skills Training (PST)

Systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of

• Enhancing performance

• Increasing enjoyment OR

• Achieving greater self-satisfaction

PST Program Facts

• PST methods and techniques come from a variety of sources, mostly from mainstream psychology

• Guidelines have been developed to make PST more effective

• PST can have major effects on performance

Mental Toughness

• = Mental resilience

• Autonomy perception

• Matters before during and after competition, handle failure or success

Four C Model of Mental Toughness

• Control

• Commitment

• Challenge

• Confidence

Time Spent on PST

Most likely to spend more time on physical training for competition instead of practicing psychological skills

Why are psychological skills neglected?

• Lack of knowledge

• Lack of comfort trying out mental skills (might seem weird so athletes might neglect)

• Misunderstandings about mental skills

• Lack of time

Common Myths about PST

• PST is for “problem” or “elite” athletes only

• PST provides “quick fix” solutions

• PST is not useful - similar to learning physical skills (better to do throughout the season = systematic)

PST Effectiveness

• Educationally based psychological skills training enchances sport performance (Reviews find positive effects in 85% of studies/arousal regulation)

• Intervention must be individualized, employed systematically over time, and multimodal (combining different psychological skills)

Three Phases of PST: 1. Educational Phase

• Emphasize importance of learning these skills

• Increasing awareness of mental status

• Green light - can perform well/flow state

• Yellow light - need to get back on track

• Red light - athlete is in need of help to get out of trouble

• Athletes learn how to monitor their mental status

Three Phases of PST: 2. Acquisition Phase

• Focus on strategies and techniques to learn skills

• Tailor training programs to meet individual needs

• Provide general information to the group or team, but be specific when developing an individual’s PST program

Three Phases of PST: 3. Practice Phase

• Focus on automating skills through over-learning

• Teach people to integrate psychological skills into performance situations

• Simulate competition

• Track progress

• Ultimate goal: Self-regulation. The ability to work toward one’s short and long term goals by effectively monitoring and managing one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

5 Stage Model of Self-Regulation

1. Problem identification: ID problem, decide to change

2. Commitment: Commit to make the change

3. Execution: Self-monitor, self-reinforce, execute change

4. Environmental management: Manage situations w/ others

5. Generalization: Sustain + generalize

Who should conduct PST?

• Certified licensed sport psychologists, sometimes a coach

When should you implement PST?

• Implement on off season

• Use during season

How long should PST training last?

Depends on situation of individual/team

When is the best time in one’s career to engage in PST mental training?

The earlier the better for the athlete.

Designing a PST Program

1. Discuss your approach

2. Assess the athlete’s mental skills

3. Determine which psychological skills and methods to include

4. Design a PST

5. Evaluate the program

Discussing your Approach (PST)

• Identify services to be provided

• Explain the differences between educational and clinical sport psychology consultants

• Build trust and a good relationship with the client (rapport) REALLY IMPORTANT w/ individualized sessions

Assessing Mental Skills (PST)

• Assess strengths and weaknesses

• Use psychological assessment techniques

• Consider the unique demands of the sport (how does it work? like golf etc.)

• Obtain the perspectives of others

Which skills/methods to include (PST)

• Skills are qualities to be obtained (ex: self-awareness, confidence)

• Methods are procedures or techniques for developing psychological skills (ex: arousal regulation, imagery, goal setting)

Determining a Schedule (PST)

• Types of meetings - depends on individual/team consultation, Informal and formal

• Whenever possible, begin PST before the season begins

• Systematically scheduled PST as part of daily practice

• Periodization (prepatory, competitive, peaking)

Evaluate the Program (PST)

• Trainers have an ethical obligation to evaluate a program’s effectiveness

• Use interview, written assessments, and objective performance measures to evaluate how well you’re doing

Guiding Principles for Olymic Mental Training (PST)

1. Mental training can’t replace physical training

2. Physical training and physical ability are not enough to succeed

3. A strong mind may not win an Olympic medal, but a weak mind will lose you one

4. Coaches frequently don’t know what their athletes are thinking

5. Thoughts affect behavior - Consistency of thinking = consistency of behavior

6. Coaches have varying views of changing technical mistakes versus mental mistakes

7. Coaches must be involved in the mental training process

8. Sometimes it is OK to force athletes to take the time to do mental training

9. Like any other skill, mental skills need to be measured in order to maximize performance of these skills

10. Coaches need to think about their own

Consultant Effectiveness (PST)

Effective Consultants

• Are accessible and can establish rapport with athletes

• Are flexible and knowledgeable enough to meet the needs of individual

Ineffective Consultants

• Have poor interpersonal skills (got to have good personality)

• Lack sensitivity to the needs of individual athletes

• Lack specific psychological knowledge to apply to the sport setting

• Demonstrate inappropriate application of consulting skills at competitions (be certified)

• Rely on a “canned approach when implementing psychological skills

Common Problems in Implementing a PST Program

• Lack of conviction - athletes don’t buy into program

• Lack of time - hard to cram program

• Lack of knowledge of sport - sport psychologist doesn’t know much about sport

• Lack of follow-up - you have to see what the outcomes are

Why regulate arousal?

• Athletes who don’t effectively cope with stress may experience decreases in performance + mental and physical distress

• Athletes need to be able to regulate arousal to stay focused and in control

Self-awareness of Arousal

• You must increase your awareness of your psychological states before you can control your thoughts and feelings

• Once aware of optimal arousal, can employ arousal regulation strategies: reduction, maintenance, induction

• How individuals cope with anxiety is more important than how much anxiety they experience

How do you get over pressure?

Why do we have to handle pressure differently?

• ER doctor vs. classroom teacher

• Speaker in front of class vs Commencement speech

• Police officer vs student

The type of task and somatic vs. cognitive

Anxiety-reducing techniques

1. Somatic anxiety reduction: muscle tension

2. Cognitive anxiety reduction: worries

3. Multimodal anxiety reduction packages: worries, tension, fatigue, etc.

Somatic anxiety reduction

• Progressive relaxation - learn to feel the tension in your muscles and then to let go of the tension

• Breath control - when you are under pressure and tense, your breathing is short, shallow, and irregular. When you are calm, confident, and in control, your breathing is smooth, deep, and rhythmic: 5-5-5-2

• Biofeedback: becoming more aware of one’s autonomic nervous system and learning to control their physiological and autonomic responses by receiving physiological feedback not normally available

Cognitive anxiety reduction

• Relaxation response - teaches individuals to quiet the mind, concentrate, and reduce muscle tension: applying the elements of meditation

• Autogenic training - focuses on producing two physical sensations—warmth and heaviness—to produce a relaxed state

1. Heaviness in extremities

2. Warmth in extremities

3. Regulation of cardiac activity

4. Regulation of breathing

5. Abdominal warmth

6. Cooling the forehead

“My head is heavy, my arm is relaxed”

Multimodal anxiety reduction packages

(best one)

• Cognitive-affective stress management training (SMT) - teaches a person specific integrated coping responses using relaxation and cognitive components to control emotional arousal

• Stress inoculation training (SIT) - an individual is exposed to and learns to cope with stress (via productive thoughts, mental images, and self-statements) in increasing amounts, thereby enhancing his or her immunity to stress

4 Steps to stress inoculation training (SIT)

1. Prepare for the stressor

2. Control and handle the stressor

3. Cope with feelings of being overwhelmed

4. Evaluate coping efforts

How do we know which anxiety reduction technique to use?

The matching hypothesis: follow predictions of matching hypothesis

• Cognitive anxiety should be treated with mental relaxation

• Somatic anxiety should be treated with physical relaxation

• If you are not sure what type of anxiety is most problematic, however, use a multimodal technique

How do we get over or through pressure?

Coping.

• A process of constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands or conflicts appraised as taxing or exceeding one’s resources

• Researchers differentiate between two types of coping - problem-focused and emotion focused coping

Problem-Focused Coping

Efforts to alter or manage the problems that are causing stress (ex: time management, problem solving)

Emotion-Focused Coping

Regulating the emotional responses to the problem that causes the stress (ex: through relaxation, mediation)

Coping with Adversity

• Use problem-focused coping when stressful situations can be changed

• Use emotion-focused coping when situations are not amenable to change

Major Problem-Focused Categories in Coping

• Information gathering

• Precompetition and competition plans

• Goal setting

• Time management skills

• Problem solving

• Increasing effort

• Self-talk

• Adhering to injury rehabilitation program

Major Emotion-Focused Categories

• Mediation

• Relaxation

• Wishful thinking

• Reappraisal

• Cognitive efforts to change the meaning (but not the actual problem or environment) of the situation

Coping in Sport

• There is no single coping strategy that is effective in all situations

• Athletes must learn a diverse set of problem- and emotion-focused coping strategies to use in different situations and for different stress resources

Coping in Sport Over Time

• Active (problem focused) and avoidance (withdrawl coping) were effective in reducing the immediate stress of competition.

• When looking at long term variables (ex: satisfaction, continued participation), active coping produced a positive relationship, whereas a negative relationship was found with avoidance coping

On-site Relaxation Tips

• Smile when you feel tension coming on

• Have fun - enjoy the situation

• Set up stressful situations in practice

• Slow down; take your time

• Stay focused on the present

• Com prepared with a good game plan

Signs of Underarousal

• Moving slowly, not getting set

• Mind wandering, being easily distracted

• Lack of concern about how one will perform

• Lack of anticipation or enthusiasm

• Heavy feeling in legs, no bounce

Arousal-Inducing Techniques

• The goal is to get athletes at an optimal level of arousal

• Often things such as pep talks and motivational speeches can overarouse athletes

• If arousal is to be raised, it should be done in a deliberate fashion with awareness of optimal arousal states

• Increasing breathing rate

• Act energized

• Use mood words and positive statements - “strong”, “forward”, “solid”, “tough”

• Listen to music

• Use energizing imagery

• Complete a pre-competition workout

Pep Talks

Guidelines for a coach’s successful pregame talk

• Give them a plan

• Make them believe they can win

• Do not lie

• Be yourself

• Use humor

What is Imagery?

Creating or re-creating experiences in your mind using as many senses as possible

• memory recall + simulation

Does Imagery Work?

• Yes, according to Michael Jordan

• Case studies, psychological intervention studies, experiments, qualitative data, etc.

Imagery: Where and When

• Where? Anywhere, but most common in competition

• When? Anytime, but usually around practice, competition, and rehabilitation. Breaks in action

Motivational Functions of Imagery

• M-Specific: goal oriented

• M-General-Mastery: performance and affect

• M-General Arousal: arousal regulation

Cognitive Functions of Imagery

• C-Specific: skill oriented

• C-General: strategy-oriented

Imagery: What is imagined

• Surroundings (context)

• Positive/Negative

• All senses (visual+kinesthetic)

• Perspective: 1st (internal and better) vs. 3rd (external)

Quality of Imagery

• Nature of the task: cognitive > motor

• Skill level of the performer: experts > novices

• Imaging ability: high > low

• Combination with practice > substitution

Five Theories of how Imagery works

• Psychoneuromuscular Theory

• Symbolic Learning Theory

• Bio-informational Theory

• Triple Code Model

• Psychological Explanations

Five Theories of how Imagery works: Psychoneuromuscular Theory

Imagery programs muscles for actions

• Imagery → motor neurons → muscles

Imagined events innervate muscles like physical practice

Five Theories of how Imagery works: Symbolic Learning Theory

Helps us understand movement patterns

• Imagery → mental blueprints → movement

Imagery functions as a coding system for motor skills

Five Theories of how Imagery works: Bio-informational Theory

Images are organized propositions/statements

• Stimulus propositions + response propositions = Imagery

• IFTTT

• Anticipation of max lift? HR increases

Both types of propositions are necessary for good script

Five Theories of how Imagery works: Triple Code Model

• Builds on previous

• Imagery = ISM (actual measure) Image, Somatic response, Meaning

• Importance is placed on psychophysiology of imagery and its meaning (interpretation)

Five Theories of how Imagery works: Psychological Explanations

• Attention-arousal

• Builds skills for performance enhancement - confidence, anxiety

• Motivation

Uses of Imagery

• Concentration

• Motivation

• Emotion

• Motor skills

• Strategy

• Competition

• Pain Management

Keys to Effective Imagery

• Vividness - using as many senses as possible to make images as detailed as possible

• Controllability - manipulating images to do what you want them to do

• PETTLEP Model

Keys to Effective Imagery: PETTLEP Model

• Physical

• Environment

• Task

• Timing

• Learning

• Emotion

• Perspective (internal/1st person)

Imagery Training Programs

• Need to be individualized

• First step is evaluate athlete’s imagery skills. Ex: VVIQ, MIQ

• Daily Practice

Imagery Guideline

• Context variety

• Aim for relaxed concentration

• Set realistic expectations, sufficient motivation

• Use vivid and controllable images

• Apply imagery to specific situations

• Maintain positive focus

• Consider use of video or audio

• Include execution and outcomes

• Image timing

Why do we set goals?

Motivates athletes to perform better

• mobilizes efforts

• prolongs persistence

• promotoes the development of new learning strategies

Reducing anxiety

Improves performance

• Directs attention to important elements of a performance

Influences self-confidence and self-worth

Types of Goals

Subjective and Objective

Outcome

Performance

process

Types of Goals: Subjective

General statements of intent such as having fun or doing your best

• We tend to set subjective goals for ourselves, then fail (no plan)

Types of Goals: Objective

Attaining a specific standard of proficiency on a task, usually in a specified time

• Objective goals are better defined

Types of Goals: Outcome

Focus on a competitive result of an event

• Ex: focusing on winning the championship and holding a trophy

Types of Goals: Performance

Focus on achieving standards of performance or personal objectives

• Ex: Planning to shoot 10 3-pointers in a basketball game

Types of Goals: Process

Focus on the actions one must do during performance to perform well

• Ex: Ensure to use proper positioning to perform an effective volleyball serve

Cons of Outcome Goals

Can faciliate (short-term) motivation but…

• Are only under partial control of the performer

• Are less precise

• Can increase worry and anxiety immediately prior to competition

• Athletes tend to become less flexible in their goal-adjustment practices

Pros of Performance and Process Goals

Create less anxiety, higher confidence, and more satisfaction

• skilled athletes - learn to compete against themselves and in turn, reach new performance heights

• Less skilled athletes - learn to judge success and failure in terms of their own performance

Process goals: have all the advantages of performance goals - pays more attention to the practice element

Goal Types and Behavior Change

• Outcome, performance, and process goals all play roles in behavior change. The key is knowing where to focus each goal

• Don’t focus all your attention on outcome goals

• Use a combination of all three types of goals

What does research tell us about goals?

Almost all athletes use some type of goal-setting to enhance performance.

Top three goals for athletes:

• Improving performance

• Winning

• Enjoyment

Athletes prefer moderately difficult, difficult, and very difficult

The more experience athletes have with goal setting, the better they are at developing effective goal-setting strategies

Athletes set goals to provide direction and help them stay focused

Athletes using multiple goal strategies exhibit the best performance

Individual differences must be considered

Athletes do not systematically write down goals

Major Goal Barriers for College Athletes

Lack of time, stress, fatigue, academic pressure, and social relationships

Major Goal Barriers for Olympians

Lack of confidence, lack of goal feedback, too many goals or conflicting goals, lack of time, work commitments, and family and personal relationships

Principles of Goal Setting

Set specific and measurable goals

• general - “do your best”

• specific - “high jump 6’5 by the end of the season”

Set moderately difficult but realistic goals

• goals should never exceed the athlete’s ability

• unrealistic goals only lead to failure and frustration

Set multiple types of goals

A combination of outcome, performance, and process goals is best

Performance and process goals - before or during competition and practices

Outcome goals - often lead to anxiety before and during competition

Set goals for practice and competition (when you are not practicing, someone else is getting better)

• Provides additional motivation for athletes (ex: run to and from all drills)

• Facilitates skill development

Set positive goals

• Helps athletes focus on success rather than failure

• Self-fulfilling prophecy (Roger Banister ran a 4 minute mile because he believed)

Indentify target dates for attaining goals

Indentify goal-achievement strategies and provide goal support

• Teach athletes how to develop and initiate effective goal-achievement strategies (ex: additional practice, cutting out snacks to lose weight

• Don’t just set a goal, figure out what you need to do to reach that goal

Record goals once they have been idenitified

• keep notebooks and record goals

• place goal reminders in lockers

Provide for goal evaluation

• game stats, coach feedback, etc.

• Adjust if necessary

Short and Long term Goals

Long term goal: Improved health and fitness

Short term goal: walk 3 days per week for 20 mins, …, jog 3 days per week,…

SMART Goals

• Specific

• Measurable

• Achievable

• Realistic

• Timely

• Self-determined

Common problems in Goal Setting

• Convincing students, athletes, and exercisers to set goals

• Failing to set specific goals

• Setting too many goals too soon

• Failing to adjust goals

• Failure to recognize individual differences

• Not providing goal follow-up and evaluation

What is communication?

• Fundamentally human

• Prediction making activity

• Uncertainty

• It can be described as a prediction-making activity, where one observes and learns behavior patterns common among humans, within cultures, contexts, and specific to individuals

• Goal of communication is to achieve understanding of one another to be able to infer cause and effect in interactions

Importance of Communication

• John Thompson: “You can communicate without motivating but it is impossible to motivate without communication”

• Pat Summitt: “In the absence of effective feedback, people will fill in the blanks with negative. They will assume you do not care about them”

Communication Keys

• Process-oriented: persuasion, evaluation, information, motivation, and problem solving

• Socially-oriented: relationship formation and maintenance (important)

Types of Communication

• Interpersonal communication (between people)

• Intrapersonal communication (to yourself/be careful)

• Nonverbal communication

Strategies for Improving Communication

• Convey rationale

• Express empathy, not sympathy

• Use a communication style thats comfortable for you

• Use a positive approach when communicating

• Make the open-door policy for your athletes sincere

• Be consistent in administering discipline

Sending Messages Effectively

• Clarity, brevity, timing

• Establish trust and rapport

• Consider nonverbal presentation - majority of comm

• Be consistent with your nonverbal messages

• Reinforce with repitition

• Be supportive

• Make messages appropriate to the receiver’s frame of reference

• Look for feedback that your message was actually interpreted

Receiving Messages Effectively

Active Listening

• Paraphrase

• Attend to main ideas

• Acknowledge and respond

• Give appropriate feedback

• Pay attention to speakers total communication (verbal and nonverbal)

• Mentally prepare to listen

• Don’t mistake hearing for listening

Supportive listening

• Ask questions (funnel)

• Empathy (not indifference)

• Open-mindedness

• Convey understanding and acknowledgement

Aware listening

• Realize that people react individually or differently to the way you communicate

• Be flexible

• Be alert for barriers and breakdowns in communication

Empathy

• Gather information

• Avoid biases

• Maintain empathy (when appropriate)

How athletes receive communication

Athletes don’t care what you know until they know that you care. Know the person!!

Breakdowns in Communication: Sender Failures

Poorly transmitted messages (ambiguity, inconsistency)

Breakdowns in Communication: Receiver failures

Failure to listen carefully (misinterpretation)

Barriers to Effective Communication

• Receiver not paying attention to sender

• Lack of trust between the individuals attempting to communicate

• Differences in socialization and heredity, causing misinterpretations between the sender and receiver

• Differences in the mental set or perception between people

• Embarrassment (creates interference)

• Tendency to tell people what they wanna hear

• Difficulties in expression or reluctance to communicate

• Belief that silence is safer

• Inconsistency between actions and words

Confrontation

• A face-to-face discussion among people in conflict often seen as negative (When properly used it is a part of effective communication

• Communication training can increase one’s effectiveness in confrontation

• It is a natural step of group development

When and How to Use Confrontation

• Avoid confronting someone when angry

• Attempt to confront someone when you feel like you are in control, can express your feelings constructively, have a well thought out reason for the confrontation

• Convey that you value your relationship with the person

• Go slowly and think about what you want to communicate

• Attempt to understand the other person’s position

• Listen carefully to what the other person is trying to communicate

How NOT to confront

• Don’t communicate the solution. Rather, focus on the problem

• Don’t use put downs

• Don’t rely on nonverbal hints to communicate your thoughts

Constructive Criticism

Sandwich approach

1. Opening Positive Statement

2. Future-Oriented Instruction

3. Compliment (make them feel good)

Example:

1. Sam, great shots today

2. Next time, make sure to focus and ease yourself when making free throws.

3. You’re almost there so keep up the good work.

Leadership

A process by whereby an individual influences a group on individual’s to achieve a common goal. Why do wolves hunt in a pack? They guide an protect eachother

4 Pillars of Leadership

• Positive Peer Modeling (PPM)

• Team Cohesion

• Motivator

• Communication

4 Pillars of Leadership: Positive Peer Modeling (PPM) Characteristics

• Confidence

• Empathetic

• Dedicated

• Accountable

• Honest

• Integrity

• Role-model

4 Pillars of Leadership: Team Cohesion Characteristics

• Supportive

• Committed

• Openess

• Relatable

• Mediator