Origins and Nature of Mussolini's Fascist Italy

Risorgimento

Nationalist movement that unified Italy but left several political, social and economic problems unresolved

Liberal dominance

Politics dominated by liberals who feared left (socialists, anarchists, republicans) and right (church), restricting voting to 2% of adults

Transformismo

Politicians making deals to alternate control due to lack of mass parties, undermining parliamentary democracy

Regional divisions

Italians loyal to town or region more than national government

Poor communication

Mountain ranges hindered national identity development

Neglected South

Lack of railways and roads caused underdevelopment

Social inequalities

Fertile lands in latifundia owned by few wealthy landowners, majority poor

North vs South

North industrialised with working class and middle class, South poorer, leading to social conflict

Industrialisation

Northern industry like Fiat created clashes between employers and employees → some joined socialists or anarchists or emigrated

Terra irredenta

‘Unredeemed land’ previously Italian-speaking under Austria-Hungary, e.g. Trentino and Trieste

Imperial ambitions

Inspired by Germany, Italy sought empire after Abyssinia defeat 1896

WWI neutrality

Italy initially neutral, promised territories by Entente

Treaty of London 1915

Italy promised to join Entente in exchange for Trentino, Trieste, etc.

Associazione Nazionalista Italiana (ANI)

First right-wing nationalist party (1910), supported war for terra irredenta, merged with Fascists in 1923

WWI Italian involvement

Ill-equipped, poor leadership, costly war of attrition, over 600,000 killed, 450,000 permanently disabled, 500,000 seriously wounded

Economic impact of WWI

Borrowed from Britain and US, debt rose from 16 to 85 billion lire, inflation destroyed middle-class savings and wages, post-war demobilisation caused unemployment

North-south economic divide

North could pass inflation costs to government, South hit badly

Unfulfilled reforms

Promised reforms to limit Bolshevism appeal not implemented

Mutilated victory

Peace treaties gave Italy less than expected, no African territory, denied Flume and northern Dalmatia

Orlando failure

PM Vittorio Orlando unable to secure Italy’s territorial claims, exploited by Mussolini to attack liberal government

Italian Popular Party (Populari)

Catholic political party emerging post-WWI

Italian Socialist Party (PSI)

Radicalised after WWI economic problems

Biennio rosso

‘Two red years’ 1919-1920, unemployment surge led to worker militancy, socialist control in northern areas

Giolitti’s response

Government inaction encouraged middle and upper classes to see liberal state as incompetent

Arditi

Demobilised officers and troops who hated liberal system, formed groups attacking socialists and unions

Fascio di Combattimento

Mussolini’s 1919 group uniting nationalists, socialists, ex-servicemen, syndicalists

Fascist Programme

Published June 1919, combined left and right-wing demands

Electoral failure 1919

Proportional representation elections, Fasci won less than 2% in Milan

Fiume

D’Annunzio seized city in 1919, inspired Mussolini’s tactics: black shirts, Roman salute, parades, balcony speeches

Unrest of biennio rosso

Action squads offered to protect industrialists and landowners, financed by elites, burnt socialist offices, disrupted peasant leagues

PNF support base

Middle and lower-middle classes fearing socialist revolution, funding from industrialists, bankers, landowners

Factory and land occupations 1920

Socialist control of provinces increased upper and middle-class fear → support for Fascists

Mussolini strategy

Recognised political and financial potential of organized action squads

May 1921 elections

Fascists 7% vote, 35 seats, Mussolini becomes deputy, socialists 123 seats, Popolari 107

Fascist respectability

Parliamentary seats gave image of legitimacy and foothold in national politics

Political instability 1921-1922

Weak coalition governments, collapse of Popolari-Giolitti alliance, inability to control strikes or political violence

Appeal to elites

Demonstrated fascists strong, liberals weak, socialists threatening, promising restoration of order

Police response

Initially ignored Fascist violence, dispersals showed party’s limited power, later controlled some street fighting

Fascist Programme 1919

Appealed to conservatives, shopkeepers, clerical workers, papal approval under Pius XI

Dual policy

Violence in streets tolerated locally while presenting moderation to conservatives

July 1922 general strike

Fascist dispersal impressed middle class, facilitated discussions for coalition government with Giolitti

Monarchy stance

Mussolini publicly accepts monarchy September 1922, increasing respectability

Partito Nazionale Fascista (PNF)

Formed from reorganization of Fasci after outmaneuvering ras, Mussolini elected leader 1921

March on Rome October 1922

Ras threatened seizure of power, Mussolini joined to appease militants and intimidate liberals

Fascist takeover

27 Oct squads seized town halls, railways, telephones in north

King Victor Emmanuel III

Refused to sign martial law, appointed Mussolini PM, possibly due to army loyalty concerns

Mussolini PM

Accepted post 29 Oct 1922, legal constitutional means, aided by fascist street violence

March symbolism

Travelled by train to Rome at head of columns, celebrated with fascists in streets