AP Psychology Unit 3 Vocabulary

continuous and discontinuous stages of development

the debate in developmental psychology regarding whether development occurs as a gradual, cumulative process (continuous) or as a series of distinct stages (discontinuous)

cross-sectional research

a research method that compares people of different ages at the same point in time to analyze age-related differences

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

longitudinal research

a research method that studies the same individuals repeatedly over a long period to observe developmental changes

nature vs. nurture

a longstanding debate in psychology regarding the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development

stability and change

a key theme in developmental psychology focusing on the extent to which early personality traits persist or change over time

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

critical periods

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned or when exposure to certain stimuli is essential for proper development

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant person’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

genetic mutations

changes in the genetic code that can lead to variations in traits or disorders, potentially affecting development and behavior

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes, and they look away sooner

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period

maternal illnesses

health conditions in the pregnant individual, such as infections or chronic prenatal development

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

Menarche

the first menstrual period, marking the beginning of reproductive capability in females

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation and the biological changes a person experiences as their ability to reproduce declines

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (e.g., ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

rooting

a reflex seen in infants, who turn their heads toward a touch on the cheek and open their mouths in search of a nipple

secondary sex characteristics

non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

spermarche

the first ejaculation, marking the onset of reproductive capability in males

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

visual cliff

a laboratory device used to test depth perception in infants and young animals, demonstrating early perceptual abilities

androgyny

displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics

gender

the socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men or women

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males and females

sexual orientation

our enduring sexual attraction toward same, other, or both sexes

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

accommodation

in Piaget’s theory, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concrete operational stage

in Piaget’s theory, the stage (about 7 to 11 years) where children think logically about concrete events

conservation

the principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in form

crystallized intelligence

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

dementia

a category of cognitive disorders marked by memory loss and impaired reasoning

egocentrism

the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view

formal operational stage

the stage where people begin to think logically about abstract concepts (around age 12)

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

preoperational stage

stage where children use language but lack logical operations (ages ~2–7)

reversibility

the ability to mentally reverse an operation

scaffold

a framework that offers temporary support to a learner

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

sensorimotor stage

stage where infants understand the world through senses and actions (birth–2)

theory of mind

understanding others’ thoughts, feelings, and perspectives

zone of proximal development (ZPD

the gap between what a child can do alone and with help

aphasia

an impairment of language due to brain damage

babbling

stage where infants produce random sounds

Broca’s area

brain region controlling speech production

cooing

early vowel-like sounds infants make

grammar

system of rules in a language

language

system of communication using symbols

linguistic determinism

language determines thought

linguistic relativity

language influences thought

morphemes

smallest units of meaning

one-word stage

child speaks in single words

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules too broadly (e.g., “goed”)

phonemes

smallest sound units

semantics

rules for meaning in language

syntax

rules for sentence structure

telegraphic speech

short, simple sentences (e.g., “want cookie”)

two-word stage

child speaks in two-word phrases

universal grammar (UG)

innate ability to acquire language

Wernicke’s area

brain region for language comprehension

adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

traumatic childhood events affecting long-term health

anxious attachment

insecure attachment with fear of abandonment

attachment

emotional bond with caregivers

authoritarian parenting

strict, low warmth parenting style

authoritative parenting

high expectations with warmth and responsiveness

avoidant attachment

insecure attachment avoiding closeness

basic trust

sense that the world is reliable

chronosystem

time-based environmental influences

diffusion (of identity)

no identity exploration or commitment

disorganized attachment

inconsistent attachment behavior

emerging adulthood

transition period (18–mid 20s)

ecological systems theory

Bronfenbrenner’s theory of environmental influences

exosystem

indirect environmental influences

foreclosure (of identity)

commitment without exploration

generativity and stagnation

middle adulthood stage of contribution vs. lack of purpose

identity

sense of self

identity and role confusion

adolescent identity exploration stage

imaginary audience

belief others are constantly watching

industry and inferiority

stage of competence vs. inferiority

initiative and guilt

stage of independence vs. guilt

insecure attachment

anxious or avoidant attachment

intimacy

ability to form close relationships

intimacy and isolation

stage of relationships vs. loneliness

macrosystem

cultural influences

mesosystem

interaction between environments

microsystem

immediate environment (family, school)

moratorium (of identity)

active exploration without commitment

neglectful parenting

lack of warmth and structure

parallel play

children play near but not with each other

permissive parenting

high warmth, low rules

personal fable

belief in one’s uniqueness

pretend play

imaginative play