Option G: Urban Environments

Define site

The physical location and geographical characteristics of a settlement

Define urbanisation

An increasing proportion of a country's population living in towns and cities

Define situation

The location of a place relative to other areas and the relationships that influence its development

HOS: Define range

The maximum distance people are prepared to travel for a good or service

HOS: Define threshold

The minimum number of people required for a good or service to stay in business

HOS: Define sphere of influence

The area served by a settlement

What is a megacity?

A city with a population of over 10 million inhabitants

Compare low- and high-order goods

Low-order goods - Everyday items bought frequently & widely accessible

High-order goods - Luxury goods bought or used infrequently

Describe factors for change in retail hierarchy (6)

1) Population change - e.g. aging population

2) Suburbanisation of wealthier households

3) Technological changes

4) Economic change - e.g. higher wages to afford luxuries

5) Congestion

6) Social changes - e.g. more employed women

Describe factors affecting distribution of residential areas (4)

	Examples
Physical Factors	Forced/voluntary proximity to:  Rivers  Hills/relief  Floodplains
Ethnicity	Positive segregation - Ethnic groups live together to support place of worship/shops → forms diaspora groups Negative segregation - Some groups are excluded due to discrimination or economic disparity
Planning	HICs: Planned neighbourhoods → regulations, infrastructure + green spaces  Gated communities - wealthier residents live in security & exclusivity  LICs: Inadequately planned informal settlements → ❌ basic services & legal recognition
Proximity to CBD	Density & space - Closer to CBD = more dense, high-rise buildings VS Farther = less dense, larger homes  Property values - Closer = higher price due to accessibility demand VS Farther = more affordable for different incomes Access to services & infrastructure - Closer = Better transport, healthcare, education, entertainment VS Farther = Less access, longer commutes

Describe factors for distribution of economic activity (commercial, retail, industrial) [7]

Factor	Explanation for positive
Relief (I)	Flat land → facilitates expansion + construction of infrastructure, utilities (electricity, water)
Coasts (C)	Allows development of commerce + port-related activities (e.g. transporting cargo)
Geology (I)	Proximity to mines → mineral resources can be manufactured & sold
Market (R, C)	Proximity to settlements → ⬆ consumer spending
Labour (I)	Access to labour pool → unskilled = cheap (esp. in LICs)
Transport links (R, C, I)	Accessibility to roads, rails, & airports → Shorter commutes for travel or delivery of raw materials/goods
Land value/rent (R, C, I)	Cheaper = more sustainable long-term; varies with seasonal revenue

Define informal economy

Economic activities outside official regulations that provides livelihoods for urban residents

Describe the pros and cons of an informal economy (6)

Pros	Cons
Provides jobs for often underrepresented people (un/semi-skilled & migrants)	Associated with negative activities (e.g. drugs, bribery, smuggling) Threatens image/security of the area → impact on residents & potential businesses/investors
Less time and money to set up businesses	Limited access to credit due to unregulated nature of the business
Goods produced often not in competition Made in small workshops, then sent to larger factories for finishing & sold on the formal market → boosts formal economy	Health & safety risks for employees due to poor work conditions Exacerbated by lack of legal protection or health coverage

Describe the causes of urbanisation (3)

A greater proportion of a people living in urban areas, caused by:

1) Rural-urban migration

2) Natural increase (CBR - CDR)

3) Urban sprawl, where there is a reclassification of rural areas into urban ones

Define centripetal movement

Movement of a population and economic activity from the periphery to urban centres

State examples of centripetal movement

1) Rural-urban migration

2) Gentrification

Define rural-urban migration

A relocation of individuals from rural to urban areas

Define gentrification

Rehabilitation of deteriorated inner-city areas, especially residential housing and commercial spaces

Describe consequences of gentrification (4)

1) Displacement of older & poorer demographic

2) Influx of younger & richer people/businesses → initial low rent + closer to CBD

3) Small-scale businesses forced out

4) Increased land price

What is a Brownfield site?

Land previously used for industrial/commercial purposes that were abandoned or underutilised

• If this land is contaminated, it requires environmental remediation before redevelopment

Define centrifugal movement

Movement of a population and economic activity from the centre of the urban area to its periphery

State examples for centrifugal movement (3)

1) Urban sprawl

2) Suburbanisation

3) Counter-urbanisation

Define urban sprawl

The unplanned physical expansion of a city area into the surrounding countryside

Define suburbanisation, & describe its features

The outward expansion of towns & cities, that engulfs surrounding villages/rural areas

Define counter‑urbanisation

The movement of population away from inner urban areas to towns/villages on the city’s edge or beyond the rural-urban fringe

Define deindustrialisation

Long-term decline in employment in an economy’s manufacturing sector

Compare positive vs negative deindustrialisation

Positive deindustrialisation - When industries replace workforce w/ machinery

Negative deindustrialisation - When the number of workers in an industry decline but productivity/machanisation doesn’t rise

Describe causes of deindustrialisation (3)

1) Globalisation - companies produce in countries w/ lower costs, rely on cheaper imports > local manfucaturing

2) Technological advancements - machines replace human labour for efficiency

3) Urban land - high prices + lack of space push industries to suburban/rural areas

Describe consequences of deindustrialisation (6)

Economic:

• Rising unemployment

• Increased taxes

Social:

• Lack of job opportunities → poverty & inequality

• Increased crime rate

Demographic:

• Out-migration / brain drain → job gaps + unskilled workers dominate

• Ageing population → youth migrates for opportunities

[CS] Infrastructure growth - Shanghai, China (8)

Urban growth challenges:

• Population surged from 11 million in 1978 to 24 million in 2015

• Problems like congestion, pollution, housing shortage arose from inadequate infrastructure

  • Congestion - Narrow roads caused 2-hour rush jams

  • Pollution - Huangpu River contaminated by industrial/household waste + ~ 80% of untreated sewage

  • Housing shortage - In 1990s, 13 million crammed in compounds owned by state-owned enterprises BUT lack of maintenance 📉 living standards + when factories closed, 2-3 million workers displaced

Mitigation strategies (infrastructure):

• Transport - Metro system eased congestion → carries over 10 million passengers daily

• Water & sanitation - 200+ wastewater plants to treat sewage, contributing to 80% reduction in water pollution to present

• Public housing - Economic Applicable Housing offered to displaced workers → meet basic necessities for better health

Define a suburb

A residential area within or just outside the boundaries of a city

Define microclimate

Any local deviation from the climate of a larger area

Describe reasons for a microclimate (5)

1) Changed surface qualities - (Pavements & buildings) Increased absorbance or reflection of solar radiation, reduced evaporation

2) Buildings - Casting a shadow, acting as a barrier to winds, channelizing winds, storing heat in their mass and releasing it at night

3) Energy seepage - Through walls and ventilation of heated buildings

4) Atmospheric pollution - Presence of solid particles in atmosphere may induce fog formation & rainfall

5) Temperature - Can be 2-4 degrees higher in cities than the surrounding countryside

What is the Urban Heat Island effect? (4)

Explains how urban regions are significantly warmer than rural areas due to environmental factors, including:

• Dense buildings

• Low vegetation

• Heat absorption by concrete/asphalt

Describe management strategies for Urban Heat Island effect (2)

1) Roofs & Walls -

• Green: vegetation absorbs heat & provides insulation

• Reflective: reflects sunlight to lower surface temperatures

→ ⬇ energy use for cooling

2) Urban greenery - trees cool the air through evapotranspiration & improve air quality by absorbing pollutants

Describe causes of air pollution (3 | 4)

• Natural: volcanic eruptions producing ash & pyroclastic material, wildfires, cow fart (methane)

• Human: industrial combustion, vehicle emissions, energy use, construction

[CS] Air pollution - Kathmandu, Nepal (8)

Overview:

• 1 of the most polluted cities globally (chronic PM2.5 levels)

• Particulate matter & nitrogen oxides emitted from traffic & brick kiln emissions

  • Traffic releases from diesel car exhausts

  • Brick kilns from incomplete combustion + heat → ~20-30% of valley PM/NO in dry seasons

Impacts:

Social -

• Healthcare pressure - Frequent respiratory illnesses (asthma attacks, COPD) → hospital admissions 2-3x in winter

Environmental -

• Biodiversity loss - Nitrogen oxide stunts photosynthesis → kills vegetation & Himalayan species lose food/habitat (e.g. porcupines, birds)

Management:

Strengths -

1) Kathmandu Valley Air Quality Management Action Plan (KVAQMAP)

• Involves Department of Environment, local municipalities, civil society groups

• Vehicle evaluation - Expand emission-testing centres & “green-sticker” schemes → target highly polluting vehicles for replacement

• Public transport promotion - Replaced inefficient minibuses w/ reliable, advanced buses (GPS tracking, smart-card ticketing)

2) Kilns conversion - Switched to Hoffmann-type kilns → more efficient heat use & ⬇ smoke emissions

• Model projects, emissions dropped ~60% & coal use up to ~40-50% while maintaining output

Weaknesses -

1) Electric-vehicle rollout slowed by weak grid capacity & upfront costs → costly alternative for petrol vehicles

2) Most traditional brick kilns remain due to demanding capital & technical support → owners cannot afford w/o subsidies

Describe management strategies for air pollution (5)

1) Improved public transit - More affordable, invest in low-carbon options: electric buses, trams, subways

2) Promote cycling or walking (pedestrianisation) - Reduce motorised transport reliance → ⬇ vehicle emissions for air quality

3) Car pooling scheme - Share cars → shrink individual carbon footprint

4) Low emission zones - Restrict high-polluting/allowing only zero-emission vehicles

5) Road engineering - Alternative routes to ⬇ congestion: tunnels, tolls, highways

Describe impacts of traffic congestion (2)

1) Noise pollution - contributes to stress, sleep disturbances, & health issues (blood pressure + cardiovascular diseases)

2) Air pollution - emits pollutants (e.g. nitrogen oxides & particulate matter) → ⬆ risk of respiratory diseases

[CS] Traffic congestion - Kathmandu, Nepal (6)

Effects:

• Traffic congestion a severe + chronic issue

• Residents waste 1-2 hours on 5 km journeys during peaks (7-10am), esp. at chokepoints like Ring Road

• Over 1.75 million vehicles (motorbikes, cars, microbuses) cram roads → unaptly suited for 1960s traffic

Management:

• Overhead bridges at 10 chokepoints (e.g. Koteshwor, Kalimati) → promote pedestrianisation, quicker vehicle passage

• CCTV + “Zero tolerance fines” of up to Rs 5000 → cameras monitor + issue instant tickets for road violations to prevent bribery at tolls (e.g. illegal line skipping, U-turns that cause bottlenecks)

→ only short-term fixes: ignores root cause of poor road design, high rates of non-compliance = still loses Rs 116 billion annually to congestion

What are contested land use changes?

Disagreement between parties (state, stakeholders, businesses, civil society groups) about converting land use from one to another

• Examples: slum clearances, urban redevelopment, depletion of green space

CLUC: Define slum clearance

Urban renewal policy that converts deteriorated and overcrowded neighbourhoods into areas of better quality housing and services

[CS] Slum clearance - Dharavi (Mumbai, India) (9)

Overview:

• ~1 million inhabitants (Muslims or Hindus fleeing drought, starvation, discrimination)

• Most homes double as workspaces (informal economy) → earns ~USD 800 million/year (textiles, homemade food, pottery)

Contested land use change:

• Government-led Dharavi Redevelopment Project - Property developer ✅ , residents & civil society groups ❌

• PD: Convert to international business district

  • 50% space for luxury housing, retail, offices

  • Estimated revenue of up to 3 billion USD

• R & CSG:

  • Squeezes population into densely-built blocks (only some eligible for free house)

  • Fear displacement to periphery, loss of prior jobs, education, social networks

  • Resistance: protests demanding universal eligibility, space for workshops

[CS] Depletion of green space - Calgary, Canada (6)

Overview:

• Thousands of hectares converted into suburban housing (54% to 37% of green space)

• Response to housing shortage & demand of over 350,000 new residents

Contested land use change:

Government ✅, residents 🤔, civil groups ❌

• Gov: Profit from property taxes, budget cuts for tree planting in 2019

• Residents: Wants affordable housing but complains about loss of wetlands/parks = natural beauty

• Civil groups: Advocacy about environmental impacts (flood risk, biodiversity loss, worsens heat island effect)

What is urban social deprivation?

When people are forced to live in areas where facilities are inadequate or inferior to the rest of the city

Describe the impacts of social deprivation

1) Cycle of deprivation - Generational process where poverty leads poor education, lack of job opportunities, & social exclusion (service access)

2) Crime - Driven by desperation for survival, limited opportunities, inadequate policing

USD: Describe management strategies for cycle of deprivation (2)

1) Affordable housing - meeting basic needs = better health & more socially active

2) Job training programmes - skill development for better-paying jobs

Describe management strategies for crime (3)

1) Community policing - Building trust & rapport between law enforcement & residents
2) Surveillance - CCTV & drones → data analytics to monitor high-crime areas

3) Improved street lighting - Suspicious activity is more noticeable so a deterrence

Resilient city: Describe management strategies for climatic risks

1) Floods -

Hard engineering: Sea walls, levees, elevated buildings

Soft: Mangroves, wetlands

2) Disasters - Early warning, evacuation routes, education, decentralised energy systems

Resilient city: Describe management strategies for geopolitical risks

1) Cybersecurity - defending against digital attacks

2) Shelters - offers safety from wars

3) Conflict prevention - warning systems & diplomatic initiatives

4) Policing & legal systems - Enforce stronger laws to deter crime motives & protect human rights

[CS] Resilient City - Seoul, South Korea

• Central of Korean Peninsula, where Han River flows

• Population of ~10 million

• Top risk factors: violence + crimes, air + water pollution, epidemics

Strategy 1 (CLIMATE): “Thousand Forests, Thousand Gardens” -

• Developed 2203 forests & parks from 2014-2019 = 15.3 million trees

• ~546 million grams of dust particulates reduced 

• Percentage of land taken up by green spaces increased 

Strategy 2 (GEOPOLITICAL): Smart CCTV Network -

• Operates over 80,000 CCTVs, ⬇ crime rates by 26.6% (2010-2015)

• By 2021, incorporating artificial intelligence that provide facial & vehicle recognition, and automatic tracking 

• Smart Seoul CCTV Safety Centre - Districts, 911 emergency operation centres, and Korean national police agency interconnected & share same CCTV information

[CS] Resilient City - Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

• Top risk factors: Floods, landslides, heat waves

Strategy 1 (CLIMATE): Flood-control infrastructure

• In 2012, built 4 underground reservoirs & diversion tunnel for Joana River

• High durability, designed to handle 1-in-25-year flood → protects streets, homes & businesses from damage

Strategy 2 (CLIMATE): Urban resilience course

• Aimed to educate 100,000 children by 2020 about flood & landslide risks

• Learned risk mapping, basic emergency plans → enhances disaster preparedness

Define urban ecological footprint

A theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water needed to provide resources and dispose of waste produced by residents/businesses

Eco city: Describe strategies for reducing ecological footprints

1) Renewable energy - solar panels, wind turbines > fossil fuels

2) Zero-emission transport - electric vehicles, efficient public transit, car-free zones

3) Waste recycling - Circular Economy → materials reused, recycled/repurposed

4) Green spaces - trees absorb CO₂, reduced urban heat island effect → ⬇ energy consumption

Define a smart city

A city using information and communications technology (ICT) and real-time data feedback to improve quality of life, enhance services, & promote sustainability

Smart city: Describe technological uses to enhance systems and services

1) Purpose-built settlements - Integrating modern technology into everyday life

• Congestion-free zoning

• High speed rail

2) Retrofitting - Improving existing infrastructure by using modern technology

• Smart traffic lights

• Water sensors → detect leaks

• Air quality monitors

What is the Bid Rent Model? Describe general trends (3)

A model proposing urban spatial pattern is shaped by the changing land value, depending on its purpose & distance from the centre

Trends:

1) Land value gradient - Land value & rent decreases as distance from CBD increases

2) Economic competition - Different commercial land users compete for central locations