OB: Ch 10: Leadership and Power

leadership

the ability to influence a group towards the achievement of a vision or a set of goals

trait theories of leadership

theories that consider personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders from nonleaders

• looks at personality, social, physical, and intellectual attributes

• focuses on personality traits (like big 5) and characteristicsthat predict 2 dimensional outcomes: leadership emergence and leadership effectiveness

• traits predict leadership —> do a better job of predicting the emergence of leaders and the appearance of leadership than distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders

behavioral theories of leadership

theories proposing that specific behaviors differentiate leaders from nonleaders

• implies that we can train people to be leaders

• the OSU studies sought to identify independent dimensions of leadership behavior

  • initiating structure, consideration

initiating structure

the extent to which a leader defines and structures their role and those of their followers to facilitate goal attainment (behavior that attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals)

consideration

the extent to which a leader has job relationships that are categorized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate’s ideas, and regard for their feelings

fieldler contingency model

the theory that effective groups depend on a proper match betwen a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader

• leadership styles reflect the degree to which leaders approach situations from either a task- or relationship-oriented approach

• 3 contingency or situational dimensions:

  • leader-member relations - the degree of confidence, trust, and respect that members have for their leader

  • task structure - the degree to which the job assignments are structured

  • position power - the degree of influence a leader has over power variabls like hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, salary increase

least-preferred coworker (LPC)

determines the leadership style (task or leadership)

• match the leader’s style with the degree of situation control

situational leadership theory (SLT)

a theory that suggest the appropriate leadership style depends on the follower’s readiness to accomplish a specific task

• 4 styles - telling/directing, selling/coaching, participation/supporting, and delegating

SLT - telling/directing (unable, unwilling)

the leader gives clear and specific instructions on what to do and how to do it (the followers are committed but not quite competent)

SLT - selling/coaching (unable, willing)

the leader should continue to give clear and specific instructions but should also provide support, feedback, and encouragement (some competence, not committed)

SLT - participating/supporting (able, unwilling)

leaders should take a step back and no longer be as directive, but still be supportive (competent, variable commitment b/c discouraged at how much of the task is left)

SLT - delegating (able, willing)

the employee is now fully capable and committed to the task - they can now be delegated the task and be left alone to get it done

path-goal theory

supportive leadership results in high performance and satisfaction when tasks are structured

• directive leadership is perceived as redundant by employees with high ability of experience

leader-participation model

suggests leaders should determine the extent to which leadership problems involve participation and shared responsibility with followers

• provides a set of rules to determine the form and amount of participative decision-making in different situations

LMX (leader-member exchange) theory

theory suggests leaders and follow have unique relationships that vary in quality and these followers comprise ingroups and outgroups

• subordinates with ingroup status will likely have higher performance ratings, less turnover, and higher job satisfaction

  • are trusted, get a disproportionate amount of the leader’s attention, and are more likely to receive special privileges

charismatic leadership theory

states that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors (those that are value-driven, symbolic, or emotional)

• tend to give these leaders power

• charismatic leaders have a vision, sense of mission, are willing to take personal risks to achieve the vision, are sensitive to followers needs, and exhibit extraordinary behaviors

• charisma is attributed to genetics, training, and experience

• strong correlation to high performance and satisfaction

  • best used in an uncertain or stressful environment

how charismatic leaders influence followers

• articulate an appealing vision

• model values behavior

• communicate a new set of values

• express dramatic behavior

charisma and situational dependency

• Charisma is strongly correlated to high performance and satisfaction

  • Best used when 

    • Environment is uncertain or stressful

    • Ideology is involved

  • Most closely associated with upper-level executives

  • People are most receptive to charisma when there is a crisis

the darkside of charismatic leadership

• Some leaders 

  • Use organizational resources for personal benefit

  • Remake companies in their own image

  • Allow self-interest and personal goals to override organization’s goals

full-range leadership model

A model that suggests that there are a number of approaches or styles of leadership (i.e., transactional, transformational) that vary on a continuum from passive and ineffective to active and effective.

laissez-faire leadership

A leadership style involving passive abdication and avoidance of leadership responsibilities, avoids making decisions

• let it be

transactional leadership

Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements, allocating rewards and punishment where needed, and (passively or actively) intervening when the situation calls for it.

• includes contingent reward, management by exception

contingent reward

Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.

management by exception - active

Watches and searches for deviations from rules and standards, takes corrective action

management by exception - passive

Intervenes only if standards are not met.

transformational leadership

Leaders who inspire followers to transcend their own selfinterests for the good of the organization.

• includes idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, individualized concern

• lower turnover, higher productivity, higher employee satisfaction, lower employee stress and burnout

idealized influence

Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains respect and trust

inspirational motivation

Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways

intellectual stimulation

Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful problem solving.

indivdualized consideration

Gives personal attention, treats each employee individually, coaches, advises.

authentic leadership

A leadership style in which leaders “know who they are” (i.e., selfawareness), are anchored by their mission, consider others’ opinions and all relevant information before acting, and display their true selves when interacting with employees

• create trust, encourage open communication, and people have faith in them

(un)ethical leadership

The idea that leaders serve as ethical role models to followers and thus demonstrate appropriate (or inappropriate) behavior by using their power in (un)ethical ways and/or by treating others fairly (or unfairly).

• executives set the moral tone for an organization, must set and adhere to high ethical values

servant leadership

A leadership style marked by going beyond the leader’s own self-interest and instead focusing on opportunities to help followers grow and develop.

• higher levels of commitment to the supervisor, self-efficacy, and perceptions of justice

• increased team potency, higher creativity, higher group performance

trust

A psychological state of mutual positive expectations between people—both depend on each other and are genuinely concerned for each other’s welfare.

• encourages taking risks, facilitates info sharing, effective groups, and enhances productivity

mentoring

mentors are a senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee

• benefits both parties

substitutes of leadership

Attributes, such as experience and training, that can replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to create structure

neutralizers of leadership

Attributes that make it impossible for leader behavior to make any difference to follower outcomes

power

The capacity, discretion, and means to enforce one’s will over others

• most important aspect of power is it is a function of dependence

dependence

The extent to which people depend or rely upon a powerful person.

• created by:

  • importance - if no one wants what you have, itt’s not going to create dependence

  • scarcity - supply of labor is low relative to demand

  • nonsubstitutability - The fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power a person controlling that resource has

differences between power and leadership

• Power does not require goal compatibility, just dependence. Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of the leader and those being led

• A second difference relates to the direction of influence. Power focuses more on the downward influence on followers. It minimizes the importance of lateral and upward relationships, which are important in leadership

• For a third difference, leadership often emphasizes style. It seeks answers to questions such as “How supportive should a leader be?” and “How much decision making should be shared with followers?” In contrast, power focuses on tactics for securing compliance

formal power

based on an individual’s position in an organization. It can come from the ability to coerce or reward or from legitimate authority.

• includes coercive, reward, and legitimate power

coercive power

A power base that depends on fear of the negative results from failing to comply

• negatively related to employee satisfactoin and commitment

reward power

Power based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable.

• unrelated to org outcomes

legitimate power

Power based on a person’s position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.

• unrelated to org outcomes

personal power

which comes from an individual’s unique characteristics.22 There are two bases of personal power: expertise and the respect and admiration of others.

• includes expert and referant power

expert power

Influence based on expertise, special skills, or knowledge

• positively related to performance and commitment

referent power

Influence based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits

• positively related to performance and commitment

influence tactics

Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions.

• 9 types

influence tactics - legitimacy

Relying on your authority position or saying that a request is in accordance with organizational policies or rules.

influence tactics - rational persuasion

Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable.

influence tactics - inspirational appeals

Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.

influence tactics - consultation

Increasing support by involving the target in deciding how to accomplish your plan

influence tactics - exchange

Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for agreeing to a request

influence tactics - personal appeals

Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty

influence tactics - ingratiation

Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request.

influence tactics - pressure

Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats

influence tactics - coalitions

Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the target to agree

cultural preferences for power

culture affects preference for power tactics

• Individualistic cultures

  • See power in personalized terms and as a legitimate means of advancing personal ends

  • Engage in more self-enhancement behaviors

• Collectivistic cultures

  • See power in social terms and as legitimate means of helping others

organizational politics - political behavior

Activities that are not required as part of a person’s formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization

• politics arise b/c of conflicting interests, limited resources, ambiguity in decision-making

responses to organizational politics

• Organizational politics may threaten employees

  • Decreased job satisfaction

  • Increased anxiety and stress

  • Increased turnover

  • Reduced performance

potlicking

twisting facts to support one’s own goals or interests

qualifiers to responses to org politics

• The politics-performance relationship is moderated by individual’s understanding of who makes decisions and why they were selected

• Political behavior at work moderates the effects of ethical leadership

• When politics are perceived as a threat, people respond with defensive behaviors

impression management

the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them

• Using IM:

  • Interviews - self-promotion and ingratiation work well

  • Performance Evaluations - ingratiation positively related, self-promotion is negatively related

  • Culture - are our conclusions about responses to politics globally valid?