Development of psychological knowledge over time

Social

• An influential event of the last century was the Second World War. The atrocities of the Holocaust led social psychologists to investigate obedience in order to understand the events and how they came about

• Milgram’s initial Agency theory believed that it was an inherent part of German nature to be obedient, and that this was the reason for the Holocaust occurring. Completed his study and found that 65% full obedience and 100% to 300V - early evidence showed that most people would obey an authority figure, Milgram shocked at the obedience of Americans (this development used to reduce prejudice surrounding the germans)

• Next, Milgram considered the role of the situation using an experimental approach in order to look for causal effects. He used the 1963 data as a baseline and compared this to variations (rundown office, experimenter on the phone, plain-clothed experimenter). Concluded that situational effects did have an impact upon obedience - these studies contributed to progress by improving the scientific nature of research into obedience (progression to social impact theory)

• Sherif: followed on from Tajfel’s SIT which claimed that being in a group was the only factor necessary to effectuate prejudice. Sherif’s research considered more contextual factors such as resource stress to give a more holistic explanation of how prejudice occurs, however more research is still needed into the role of personality and culture. The field experiment lacks standardisation and some scientific credibility 

Cognitive

• Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory was supported by his research studies such as the War of the Ghosts - lacks falsification and testability. In the 1950s and 60s a number of research studies (Miller, Baddeley, Peterson & Peterson) led to a ne perspective of memory as separate stores and processes - machine reductionism but allows the more scientific study of memory to generate empirical evidence. This was the multi-store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin - first model to distinguish between STM and LTM (importance of rehearsal used in education and revision). Further research challenged this theory, indicating that STM consisted of more than one store (for example case study of patient KF), which led to the development of the WMM

• 1974 version of the WMM was created in response to the MSM, which was deemed to be too simplistic - WMM included both visual and acoustic STM stores. Presence of a central executive and division of short-term memory into phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad. In 2000s, the model was updated, with the episodic buffer being added 

• Development as positive as more detailed empirical evidence on different stores of memory and processing - however less holistic than the original reconstructive memory, does not take into account individual experiences and culture upon memory

• Baddeley: Baddeley did 3 versions of his study – progression over time in terms of scientific development (made the third experiment ‘perfect’ by having controls in place). This showed that encoding in the LTM is semantic which prompted Tulving to develop this theory of the LTM even further (episodic and semantic). However, methods used to study memory didn’t develop further – still a reductionist approach used which reduced memory too its basic parts, which is too simplistic  

Biological

• Following the acceptance of Charles Darwin’s explanation of evolution in the 19th century, this approach was used to explain many psychological phenomenon such as aggression. The understanding of evolution, and genetics, led to explanations based on ‘nature’ arguments and personality types and innate gender differences. Later, the growing influence of the behaviourists led to a focus on nurture and the influence of the environment

• Progression of scientific knowledge and technological advances. Freud’s 1920s psychodynamic theory wasn’t a scientific explanation of aggression as the superego and id couldn’t be measured or located. His theories were abstract concepts; therefore his psychodynamic theory could not be advanced, as cognitions are immeasurable. However, brain scanning techniques have made it possible for psychologists to study brain activity as it occurs. E.g. the PET scan, where a radioactive glucose tracer was injected into the participant, and travels via the bloodstream. This highlights areas of the brain in different colours depending on their glucose metabolism, representing brain activity. Raine et al used PET scans to explore activity in different brain structures of NGRIs compared to ordinary people – developed understanding of structural brain abnormalities – lead to crime prevention. Furthering the development of knowledge is still needed 

• Epigenetics – Charles Whitman/Fred and Rose West  

Learning

• Classical conditioning explains behaviours learnt to association – however not all new learning can be explained this way. Operant conditioning enables us to do this through trial and error learning, but fails to explain the cognitive element of learning i.e. why we sometimes choose not to show a behaviour. These behavioural theories are very deterministic. Social learning theory is the most superior theory as it can show how we learn new behaviour and how we need not practice this behaviour, just be able to observe it, ability to reproduce it and motivation to do it. Role of vicarious reinforcement and self-efficacy (sense of self-esteem, whether you believe yourself to be capable). Soft determinism, suggests that we have some choices 

• Bandura refined his own theory to include more cognitive and mediational processes, changing it from ‘social learning theory’ to ‘social cognitive theory.’ Shows his own reflection and development. greater application to a modern world in which behvaiour is shaped through role models and the media

• Watson and Rayner: learnt from Pavlov’s ideas of classical conditioning in dogs and were the first people to assess the role of classical conditioning in humans. These findings have led to development in treatments for phobias for example systematic desensitisation/exposure/aversion therapies. However, limitations in the methodology of the research and ethical guidelines  

Clinical

• Dopamine hypothesis progression – revised dopamine hypothesis Carlsson introduction of glutamate – lead to a more complex understanding of neurotransmission and schizophrenia 

• Treatment development – typical, atypical drugs, currently on third generation drugs 

• Rosenhan: greater understanding of the limitations of the DSM, greater understanding of the experience of patients within mental institutions. (although validity issues with the study). DSM/ICD progression, getting rid of 5 subgroups in DSM and 7 subgroups in ICD to return to a broader umbrella term. ICD section III for future research, including cultural formulation, evolution over time into the future (homosexuality used to be in the DSM as a mental disorder, but was removed in 1973). Introduction of culture-bound syndromes, for example Koro in the DSM5. However Same diagnostic tools still used such as the DSM and ICD. Still consistent western bias, based off of western treatments and western norms. Some countries may still hold stigma  

Child

• Development in autism, amygdala explanation - newfound knowledge in 2022 that this may be more specifically overgrowth in the right amygdala, connections to other areas of the social brain 

• Development in treatment of autism – older treatments such as applied behavioural analysis, which had a more scientific focus learning mechanisms to change autistic behaviours - data collection techniques included how many times the child made eye contact within a set period of time etc. progression into occupational therapy which is more empowering for the child - less attempt to enforce upon them neurotypical behaviours, but instead a greater focus on working with them and their families to develop strategies for managing their challenges. This reflects a slight change in societal attitudes towards the condition, reducing stigma and a more neurodiversity-affirming outlook. Recent progression of technology within society has led to an increased use of technology within autism treatments- for example the use of virtual reality therapies

• Van Izjendoorn and Kroonenberg: Progression of knowledge from Ainsworth’s Strange Situation test. First study to assess intra-cultural differences, discovering they actually had a greater effect than intercultural differences – meta-analysis allowed for the development of attachment studies across different cultures (give examples) 

Introductory points

• Psychology is a relatively new discipline, existing for only just over 100 years - much has changed in this time

• The scientific process involves the development of theories/explanations. We begin with observations of the world - leads to development of a theory - hypotheses tested through research. If a hypothesis is not supported, the theory must be modified - in this way, past theories act as a platform from which we can develop new theories

AO3 to remember!

• has this development become more scientific or reductionist?

• is there more positive application to society, is this theory more relevant to the modern world?

• is the research supporting the theory credible?