biol208 gardner exam 3

Name the 5 endocrine glands

pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal: APTPP

Which organs and/or structures contain endocrine cells?

Hypothalamus

Thymus

Heart

Kidneys

GI tract

Pancreatic islets

What does the anterior pituitary secrete?

AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone ACTH

Follice-Stimulating Hormone FSH

Growth Hormone GH

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone

PRoLactin PRL

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone TSH

What does the posterior pituitary secrete

ADH and oxytocin

What does the pineal gland secrete

melatonin

What does the thyroid gland secrete

T3, T4, calcitonin

What do the parathyroid glands secrete

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

What do the adrenal glands secrete

Cortex: Corticosteroids (aldosterone)

Medulla: Epi and NorEpi

Direct cell signaling

signaling cell and target cell connected by gap junctions

signal passed directly from one cell to another

Indirect cell signaling

signaling cell releases a chemical messenger that binds to a receptor on the target cell and activates a signal transduction pathway

Signaling for short distances

Paracrine: Diffusion to nearby cell

Autocrine: Diffusion back to signaling cell

Signaling for long distances

Endocrine: Hormone via circulatory system

Neural: signal along neuron, releases neurotransmitters

Types of messengers

Hydrophobic: Simple diffusion, lipid-soluble. Ex: Steroids (testosterone) and thyroid hormones (T3,T4,NO)

Hydrophilic: messengers bind receptors outside of cells. Amines like catecholamines (epi,histamine, melatonin) and peptide hormones (ADH, oxytocin, GH, TSH, ACTH,FSH,LH,PRL,MSH, insulin, glucagon, parathyroid, calcitonin, erythropoietin)

4 steps of hydrophobic hormones

1: Hormone goes thru membrane, binds w receptor to make hormone-receptor complex HRC

2: HRC + DNA (Hormone-response element HRE)

3: HRC binds HRE, stims mRNA synth

4: mRNA exits nucleus, is translated by ribosomes, makes a new protein

3 steps of hydrophilic hormones

1: Activated G protein binds, activates adenylate cyclase in plasma membrane

2: Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cAMP

3: cAMP is a 2nd messenger, activates protein kinase A

Hormonal stimulation

Hormones release in response to other hormones:

1. anterior pituitary releases thyroid stimulating hormone

2. TSH stimulates thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone TSH>>TH

Humoral stimulation

Hormone releases in response to change of ion/nutrient level in blood:

1. blood glucose levels increase

2. increased blood glucose stimulates pancreas to release insulin

Nervous system stimulation

release of a hormone in response to stimulation by the nervous system.

1: Sympathetic division is activated

2: Symp preganglionic axons stim adrenal medulla to release epi, norepi

Pituitary gland

-Hypophysis

-9 important peptides

-Controlled by hypothalamus

PRL

FSH

LH

Oxytocin

ACTH

TSH

GH

MSH

Hypothalamus

-Produces regulatory hormones, stim or inhib anterior pituitary hormone secretion

-Produces ADH and oxytocin, stored and released by posterior pituitary

What does the pituitary gland help control

-BP

-Growth

-Certain sex organ functions

-Thyroid glands

-Metabolism

-Some aspects of pregnancy, nursing and childbirth

-Water/salt concentrations at kidneys

-Temp regulation

-Pain relief

7 hormones of anterior pituitary

1. Human growth hormone (hGH)

2. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

3. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

4. Luteinizing hormone (LH)

5. Prolactin (PRL)

6. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

7. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

2 hormones of posterior pituitary

ADH and oxytocin

What does the anterior pituitary do

makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus

regulated by negative feedback to regulate homeostasis

hormones which act on other endocrine systems are called tropic hormones. REGULATES OTHER ENDOCRINE GLANDS

What does the posterior pituitary do

Does NOT synthesize hormones, stores and releases hormones made by hypothalamus

Where in the body do each of the pituitary hormones target?

FSH and LH: gonads

ACTH: Adrenal Cortex. Think AC

TSH: Thyroid. Thyroid-Stimulating

Prolactin: Mammary glands. Lact

GH: Liver, whole body

ADH: Kidney. AntiDiuretic

Oxytocin: Mammary gland (feeding)

What does the hypothalamus synthesize and release

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone TRH

Prolactin releasing hormone PRH

Gonadotropin releasing h. GnRH

corticotropin re. h. CRH

GH re. h. GRH

Prolactin-inhib hormone PIH

GH-inhib hormone GIH

What does the anterior pituitary synthesize and release

Thyroid-stimulating hormone TSH

Prolactin PRL

Follicle stimulating hormone FSH

Luteinizing hormone LH

AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone ACTH

Growth Hormone GH

hypophyseal portal system

blood vessels that link hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

Steps of oxytocin and ADH

1: Hypothalamic neurons make oxy and ADH

2: Oxy and ADH go along hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract to posterior pituitary

3: Oxy and ADH stored in axon terminals within pos. pituitary

4: Oxy and ADH released into blood when hypothalamic neurons fire

What does oxytocin do

Affects uterus and breasts during and after baby delivery

Enhances smooth muscle contraxn in uterine wall

Stims milk ejection from mammary glands

Positive feedback for birth

What does Anti Diuretic Hormone do

AKA Vasopressin, holds water

Decreases urine produxn

Decreases water loss via sweat, constricts arterioles to increase BP

Describe positive feedback loop of oxytocin

Increased stretching of cervix releases more oxytocin, which increases stretching more. Interrupted by delivery of baby since this relaxes the cervix

Steps of ADH

1: Low BP or BV releases Angiotensin II

2: Hypothalamus responds

3: Hypothalamus increases nerve signals to pos pituitary to release ADH

4: ADH binds to effectors to increase thirst, water reabsorption, vasoconstriction, and water retention

5: BV and BP maintained, osmolarity decreased

Growth hormone steps

1. hypothalamus releases GHRH due to age, blood GH, time of day, nutrient levels, or stress/exercise

2:GHRH to hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system

3: Anterior pituitary releases GH

4: GH stims hepatocytes to release insulin-like growth factors (IGFs)

5: GH + IGFs stim target cells

6: Growth occurs

7: Increased GH and IGF inhib. GHRH release (negative feedback)

follicular and parafollicular cells

Follicular: Stimmed by TSH to make T3 and T4 thyroid hormones

Para: C cells make Calcitonin to regulate calcium homeostasis

Steps of thyroid hormones

1: TRH released into hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system due to TH in blood, cold, pregnancy, high alt., or low blood sugar

2: Ant Pituitary releases TSH

3: TSH stims thyroid to release TH

4: TH acts on target cells

5: Increased metabolism and nutrient release

6: Increased TH levels inhib TRH and TSH (Negative feedback)

Specific actions of thyroid hormone

-Hepatocytes increase glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis to increase glucose

-Adipose cells increase lipolysis, decrease lipogenesis to save glucose for the brain

-Increased HR, contractile force, and receptors for epi and norepi

-Increased breathing so more O2 for ATP

Steps of parathyroid glands and calcium homeostasis

1: Parathyroid detects low blood calcium

2: Parathyroid hormone released

3: Bones, kidneys, and small intestine increase and conserve calcium

4: homeostasis restored

What do suprarenal glands do

Superficial suprarenal/adrenal cortex

-Store lipids to make steroid hormones

Example of glucocorticoids

Cortisol

Example of mineralocorticoid

aldosterone

What does the inner suprarenal medulla do

Chromaffin cells produce catecholamines

What does the adrenal medulla do

RELEASES catacholamines during fight or flight

Steps of aldosterone

1: Angiotensin II increases blood K+ and plasma levels

2: Adrenal cortex releases aldosterone into blood

3: Blood plasma Na+ maintained, K+ decreased, BV and BP maintained by reduced urine output

**note: Aldosterone does NOT directly affect water transport. Water reabsorption due to ADH, not Na+

Steps of cortisol

1: Hypothalamus releases Corticotropin-re. h. into hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal

2: ACTH releases in response to CRH

3: ACTH stims adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (cortisol)

4: Cortisol stims target cells to breakdown fats, proteins, and glycogen to increase glucose

5: Increased cortisol levels inhib CRH and ACTH (Negative feedback)

Short term stress response of cortisol

-Increased glucodse, BP, RR, MR

-Altered bloodflow pattern increases alertness and decreases digestion and kidney activity

Long term stress response of cortisol

Mineralocorticoids: Na+ and water retained by kidneys. BV and BP increased

Glucocorticoids: Proteins, fats, and glycogen broken down for glucose. Immunosuppression

What is B-Endorphin

endogenous opioid polypeptide.

-Made by hypothalamus and ant. pituitary gland

-Inhibs stress hormones, produces analgesia, well-being

-stimmed by exercise

-stim immune system and NK cells

What does the pineal gland do

Pinealocytes make melatonin, stimmed by darkness. Antioxidant which protects cells and skin from UV dmg

endocrine and exocrine fns of pancreas

Endocrine: Hormones into blood.

-a cells make secrete glucagon for when glucose is low

-B cells secrete Insulin for when glucose is high

Exocrine: Pancreatic juice has digestive enzymes

Steps of insulin

1: High blood sugar

2: B cells release insulin

3: Insulin stims target cells to build glycogen, lipids, proteins, and uptake glucose into cells

4: Decreased blood sugar

How does glucose enter cells

Facilitated diffusion

Steps to glucagon

1: A cells in pancreas detect low blood sugar

2: A cells in pancreas release glucagon

3: Glucagon stims target cells to breakdown glycogen and fats to increase blood sugar

4: Increased blood sugar and FAs, but no change in AAs or proteins

Type I vs type II diabetes

Type I - No insulin is made

Type 2 - Stop responding to insulin

Steps of the heart's endocrine function

1: Atria release Atrial Natriuretic Peptide ANP into blood

2: ANP causes vasodilation, more glomerular filtration, more Na+ and water loss, and decreases renin

3: BP decreases

How does the kidney do gluconeogenesis

Lactate, glutamine, glycerol, and alanine make glucose

Endocrine disorders examples

Pituitary gigantism and acromegaly: Xs GH

Goiter: Reduction in thyroid hormone

Graves: xs thyroid hormone

Cushings: XS glucocorticoids (cortisol)

Steps of erythropoietin

1: Kidney detects low blood O2

2: kidneys release EPO

3: EPO stims red bone marrow to make more erythrocytes

4: Increased erythrocytes enter circulation and are oxygenated

5: Increased blood O2 detected by kidneys, inhibs EPO release (negative feedback)

Functions of respiratory system

-Provide surface area between air and circulating blood

-Regulation of blood pH

-Voice production

-Olfaction

-Protexn against microbes by prevention and removal

What are the lung pleurae

-2 serous membranes covering lungs

-Inner is the visceral pleura that covers the surface

-Thoracic wall and diaphragm lined by outer parietal pleura

-pleural cavity is space btwn, contains lubricating fluid to reduce resistance during lung expansion

Structural components of respiratory system

Upper and lower resp system

Functional components of resp system

Conducting zone: Tubes bring air in

Resp zone: Gas exchange, primary in alveoli

Upper resp system parts

nose and pharynx

Lower resp system parts

Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

What is the nose made of, and what does it do

nasal bones and hyaline cartilage

-Protexn via sneezing and nares, warming and humidification of air

What are nasal conchae and what do they do

the expand the nasal cavity and increase the surface area clean warm and humidify

What do the paranasal sinuses do

warm air, resonate sound, decrease weight of skull

Nasopharynx

pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium. Warms, humidifies, and filters inspired air

Oropharynx

Protects against mechanical stress, passageway for food and drink

laryngopharynx

lower part of the pharynx, just below the oropharyngeal opening into the larynx and esophagus.

Larynx

Voice box. Passageway connecting pharynx and trachea

Epiglottis

elastic cartilage that covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing to route food and drink to esophagus

How is sound loudness determined

Force of airstream. More force of expiration/exhalation = louder sound

What structures work together to produce speech

pharynx, soft palate, tongue, lips, and air moving over vocal cords

Vocal vs vestibular folds

Vocal: TRUE vocal cords used in sound produxn

Vestibular: ONLY SUPPORT vocal cords

Describe the trachea

16-20 C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings

Carina at junction where trachea splits into primary bronchi

Trachealis= smooth muscle

What marks the end of the conducting zone

terminal bronchioles

Bronchiole structure

have no cartilage and are dominated by smooth muscle

Bronchodilation

Increase diameter by relaxing smooth muscle

Dilation of bronchial airways

Caused by symp ANS and Norepi

Bronchoconstriction

Decrease diameter by contracting smooth muscle

Constriction of bronchi

Parasymp ANS and histamine release

How does blood enter the lungs

pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) blood from heart to lungs. bronchial arteries (systemic circulation) supply lungs with O2 and nutrients

How does blood exit lungs

pulmonary veins take blood back to heart. Bronchial veins remove waste

Lungs have high ___ and ___

Compliance and elasticity

Alveoli respiratory zone

Conducting zone ends at terminal bronchioles, respiratory zone begins. Respiratory zone terminates at alveoli.

What makes the alveoli and lungs expandable

Surfactant

Alveolar epithelium

-Simple squamous epithelium

-Made of thin, delicate pneumocytes type I for gas exchange

-Patrolled by alveolar macrophages called dust cells

-Pneumocytes type II make surfactant

Why do the lungs need surfactant

-Reduces surface tension of water

-Disrupts H bonds so they don't pull water molecules together and collapse the alveoli

-By disrupting H bonds, alveoli remain inflated

External vs internal respiration

External: Gas xchange between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries

Internal: Gas xchange btwn systemic capillaries and tissue cells

Inspiration/inhalation

-Increased V = Decreased P so air rushes in

-Diaphragm contracts

Expiration/exhalation

-Decreased V = Increased P so air rushes out

-Diaphragm relaxes

Muscles of forced inhalation

sternocleidomastoid,

scalenes,

pectoralis minor,

serratus posterior superior,

erector spinae

Muscles of forced exhalation

transversus thoracis,

serratus posterior inferior,

internal intercostal,

external oblique,

transversus abdominis

Muscles of quiet breathing

diaphragm and external intercostals

What structure regulates breathing

Medullary respiratory center

Rhythmicity area

area in the medulla oblongata sets the basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration

Inspiratory center

Within medulla oblongata.

Phrenic and intercostal nerves

Vagus CN X sends info about lung inflation for forced expiration, helps prevent overinflation

Pontine respiratory center

Within Pons

-Pneumotaxic center: Adjusts rhythm of respiration

-Apneustic center: Controls depth of inspiration

Central chemoreceptors

Located within medulla oblongata

Sense CO2

Peripheral chemoreceptors

-Aortic bodies in aortic arch

-Carotid bodies located at junction of internal and external carotid arteries. Sense changes in O2, CO2, and H+