PSYCH 2 GENERAL ISSUES

Define the term "Aim"

A general statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; the purpose of the study.

Define the term Independent variable

The variable that is being manipulated/changed by the researcher. Used in scientific research such as experiments . Often the 'difference' between conditions

Dependent variable

Variable that is being measured by the researcher to establish the affect the IV has had. Results from measuring dependent variables will allow the research to establish cause and effect.

Co-variables

the variables within a correlation and refer to the two variables within a correlation being correlated to establish whether there is a relationship between them (e.g. height and weight)

confounding variable

variables that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but affect the results of some participants behaviour. They are inconsistent and difficult to control. They are undesirable and a researcher should make every effort to minimise/control these. They have negative consequences for validity

Extraneous variable

variables in a study that are not being measured or manipulated by the researcher but affect the results of ALL (or Every) participants' behaviour equally. They are generally consistent and link to a design flaw. These are undesirable and a researcher should make every effort to minimise or control these, as they have negative consequences for validity

hypothesis

A hypothesis is predictive statement about what the researcher expects to find. You will need to know about two types of experimental/alternative hypotheses (1) and null hypotheses (2).

Experimental/alternative hypotheses

An experimental hypothesis is selected when an experimental research method has been used; an alternative hypothesis is selected when a non-experimental research method has been used. This predicts that the researcher will find a significant difference / relationship An experimental/alternative hypothesis may be directional (one-tailed) or non-directional (two-tailed).

Directional Hypothesis

(one tailed) that predicts the IV will affect the DV and states exactly how this difference will occur. This is commonly used when previous research is fairly conclusive and the researcher is confident about what they expect to find

Null Hypotheses

A null hypothesis predicts that the IV will have no significant effect on the DV; e.g. there will be no significant difference between the two conditions OR any difference between the two conditions will be due to chance factors.

Random sampling

each member of the TP has an equal chance of being selected. The TP is identified and a list of every person is created. Each person is assigned a different number. Participants are chosen sing a random number generator or a lottery methods (names out of a hat). Once the correct number of random numbers has been generated, the corresponding people must be asked if they wish to participate

Opportunity sampling

selects those who are available at the time. Identify the TP and then locations where suitable participants can be easily drawn. In the location ask participants if they are willing to participate.

Volunteer

Identify the TP. Create an advert which identifies the aim and how to participate. Display the advert in a suitable location for that particular research study. Wait for potential participants to respond to the advert and ask if they are willing to participate.

Systematic

Identify the TP. Calculate the nth interval in order to obtain a suitable sample, then select each nth person on a list (eg. Every 5th person). The researcher must ask the person if they are willing to participate.

Stratified

Identify the TP and the sub-groups/strata of the TP. Assess the proportion of sub-groups in the TP and then how many participants are needed from each sub-group in the sample. Choose participants from sub-groups randomly. The researcher must ask the person if they are willing to participate

Quota

Identify the TP and the sub-groups/strata of the TP. Assess the proportion of sub-groups in the TP and then how many participants are needed from each subgroup in the sample. Choose participants from sub-groups opportunistically. The researcher must ask the person if they are willing to participate

Snowball

Identify the TP and use opportunity for initial sample. These participants will then identify further participants from people they know. The researcher must ask the person if they are willing to participate.

Ethics Committees

Ethics committees provide a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results. All universities (where most research psychologists are based) have ethics committees and it is their role to approve research before it can go ahead. An ethics committee may make suggestions about how the research can be completed in a more ethical way. For socially sensitive research, the committee may propose to the researcher(s) advice on how best to publish their results so as to reduce risk of harm to participants.

How to deal with issue of confidentiality?

Anonymity and right to withdraw

How to deal with issue of deception

Roleplay and debriefing

How to deal with issue of Risk of stress, anxiety, humiliation or pain

valid consent to be treated otherwise and debriefing

How to deal with issue of Risk to participants' values, beliefs, relationships, status or privacy

valid consent to be treated otherwise and debriefing

How to deal with issue of Lack of valid consent

minimise deception, obtain partial consent, passive rather than active deception, presumptive consent (asking group of people similar to actual participants if they would take part), retrospective consent (gain consent after the study).

How to deal with issue of Working with vulnerable individuals

additional protections (e.g. check consent throughout, allow the right to withdraw), consent by proxy

How to deal with issue of working with animals

Reduce the number of animals used, Procedures to reduce suffering - ensuring any tasks/research does not cause unnecessary death, harm or illness to the animal, obtaining relevant licences from the Home Office for research with protected species. Use of only captive bred animals wherever possible.Only using actual animals if no other form of testing (such as computer simulation etc.) could be used.

Internal Reliability

the extent to which a test or measure is consistent within itself (eg. consistency of measurement across items on a measurement scale)

Questions we ask when determining internal reliability

How has the variable been measured? How consistently have we measured that variable?

How can we improve internal reliability

Split half method (takes one half of measurement and compare to the other half, if results are similar, study has internal reliability.

Standard procedure (ensures same experience of all participants, same instructions, each exposed to same procedure).

External Reliability

the extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions (eg. consistency over time or across different researchers)

Questions we ask when determining external reliability

Is there a reason why a p's behaviour wouldn't be consistent over time? If there is more than one researcher, are they measuring in the same way?

How can we improve external reliability

Test re-test (testing same ppl once and exact same ppl again)

Inter Rater Reliability - minimum of 2 researchers measure the same variable, same ps and collect data individually. These results are compared and if they are similar, inter rate reliability exists.

Validity

the accuracy of the findings or whether the observed effect is a genuine one

Questions we ask when determining internal validity

Are we accurately measuring what we intend to measure? Is the change in IV causing the change in DV?

What do we need to consider? (5 terms)

Repeated measures design - leads to order effects

Demand characteristics

Social Desirability

Researcher effects - anything researcher could have done to influence ps responses

extraneous variables

How do we deal with repeated measures design as an issue ?

Counter balancing

How do we deal with demand characteristics as an issue ?

Double blind design

How do we deal with social desirability bias ?

Anonymous

How do we deal with researcher effects ?

Double blind design

How do we deal with EVs/CVs?

keep consistent/remove them

External validity

How can we generalise the findings beyond the study

What do we need to consider in calculating external validity

Population (is the sample representative), ecological (was it conducted in a real life environment), historical (are the results generalisable to different times), cultural ( can we generalise findings to different countries and cultures)

How do we deal with issues of external validity

Replicate research