Biological & Cognitive

Rostral 

The anterior, the front.

Caudal

The posterior, the back. 

Dorsal 

The top. 

Ventral

The bottom. 

Lateral 

Toward the side.

Medial 

Toward the middle. 

Ipsilateral 

On the same (one) side.

Contralateral

On the opposite side.

Nervous system (what 2 systems?)

Contains the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. 

Peripheral nervous system (what 2 systems?)

somatic and autonomic nervous systems

PNS structures

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

PNS role

transmitting information to the CNS and carrying signals out of it.

Somatic nervous system (2 structures)

Cranial nerves and spinal nerves

Somatic nervous system role

movement of skeletal muscles and transmits somatosensory information to the CNS

Cranial nerves

A set of 12 motor and/or sensory nerves attached to the ventral surface of the brain, controlling sensory and motor functions of the head and neck. 

Spinal nerves

Nerves attached to the spinal cord organised into 31 pairs.

Autonomic nervous system (what 2 systems?)

sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system

Autonomic nervous system role

Controls vegetative functions, regulating smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands. 

Sympathetic nerves function

Heighten arousal, preparing the body for expenditure. 

Parasympathetic nerves function

Lessen arousal, relaxing the body.

Meninges: dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater

3 protective tissues that envelop the brain and spinal cord.

Meninx 

Singular layer of the meninges

Dura mater 

tough, flexible outermost meninx

Arachnoid 

Middle meninx. 

Pia mater

Innermost meninx connected to the brain. 

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 

Plasma-like, watery cushion circulated in the subarachnoid space.

 

It is constantly (actively) produced by the choroid plexus, circulated, and reabsorbed into the blood stream.

CSF function

protects the brain, provides chemical stability and clears waste.

Subarachnoid space 

The space between the arachnoid and pia mater layers, containing the CSF.

Choroid plexus 

Blood vessels in each ventricle.

Ventricular system 

A network of hollow chambers that contain the choroid plexus that produce CSF.  

There are 4 cavities that transport CSF around the brain: lateral ventricles, third ventricles, cerebral aqueduct, and fourth ventricle.

Divisions of the brain 

3 divisions: the forebrain, the midbrain, the hindbrain.

The forebrain (location, ventricles, subdivisions)

The rostral (front) division of the brain. 

 

Contains the lateral and third ventricles. 

 

Contains the telencephalon and diencephalon subdivisions.

The midbrain (ventricles, subdivisions)

Contains the cerebral aqueduct.

Contains the mesencephalon subdivision.

The hindbrain (ventricles, subdivisions)

Contains the fourth ventricle.

Contains the metencephalon and the myelencephalon subdivisions. 

Telencephalon (structures)

Contains the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system. 

Cerebral cortex

The “Bark”: thin tissue layer of the cerebrum covering the brain made up of grey matter, which is wrinkled/crumpled to fit inside the skull. 

 

Consists of the two hemispheres that communicate through the corpus callosum. 

 

Contains the lobes of the brain. 

Corpus callosum

The largest white matter structure in the brain, a bundle of nerve fibres joining the two hemispheres.

Cerebrum

The largest, topmost part of the brain, responsible for high-level functions. 

 

Contains grey and white matter. 

Lobes of the brain 

There are 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. 

Primary cortex 

The main processing area for specific sensory and motor function. 

 

Involves the primary motor, primary somatosensory, primary auditory, primary olfactory, and primary visual cortices. 

 

Represented by the homunculus brain, which depicts the somatotopic organisation of the primary cortex. 

Homunculus brain 

Represents the primary cortex with a distorted representation of the human body projected across the cortex.

Somatotopic organisation 

The correspondence between specific body parts to the designated areas in the cortex, which the homunculus brain visually represents.

Brodmann area 

A region in the primary cerebral cortex defined by its cellular/neuronal organisation and associated with diverse cortical functions.  

Limbic system

Involves learning, memory and emotion 

 

Includes: the limbic cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, fornix, mammillary bodies (part of the hypothalamus). 

Basal ganglia 

A set of structures involved in motor information processing. 

 

Major structures: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus.

Diencephalon (structures)

Contains the thalamus and  hypothalamus. 

Thalamus

The main sensory relay for the senses (except smell) and the cortex. 

 

Contains the LGN and MGN nuclei. 

Nuclei

Group of neurons of a similar shape. 

Hypothalamus

Regulates the autonomic nervous system by controlling the pituitary gland and producing most hormones in the endocrine system. 

 

Concerned with fighting, feeding, fleeing and mating.

Mesencephalon (structures)

Contains the tectum and tegmentum. 

Tectum

Processes multisensory information. 

 

The dorsal section of the midbrain. 

 

Contains superior colliculi and inferior colliculi. 

Superior colliculi

Subcortical sensory pathways involved in fast eye movement. 

Inferior colliculi

Part of the auditory pathway. 

Tegmentum 

Has a role in motor movement. 

 

A large, multi-tissue region in the ventral part of the midbrain and extending into the blood stream. 

 

Contains reticular formation, red nucleus, and substantia nigra. 

Reticular formation

Net-like network of neurons and nuclei across the brainstem. 

 

Regulates life functions.

Brainstem

A critical, stalk-like structure containing the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and pons. 

 

Responsible for vital life functions.

red nucleus

Iron-rich structure involved in motor control.

Substantia nigra 

A critical, dopamine-producing nucleus that regulates voluntary movement, reward and cognition.

Metencephalon

Contains the cerebellum and the pons. 

Cerebellum

Mini brain-like, involved in motor coordination, and smooth execution of movement.

Pons

Links the cerebellum and cerebrum. 

 

Is a part of reticular formation, regulating sleep and arousal.

Myelencephalon

Contains the medulla oblongata.

Medulla oblongata 

Involved in basic life functions (breathing, swallowing, coughing, sleep-wake cycle, etc). 

Spinal cord 

An extension of CNS tissues from the medulla in the brain to the spinal cord. 

 

Communicates with sense organs and muscles below head level. 

 

The main components are: dorsal roots and ventral roots. 

Dorsal roots

Carry sensory information to the CNS.

Ventral roots

Carry motor information to the muscles and glands away from the CNS

Afferent nerves

Carry toward the CNS, controlling sensory information transmission.

Efferent nerves

Carry away from the CNS, controlling motor commands.

Neurons

nervous system cells that support information processing and information transmission. 

soma

cell body

dendrites

branches

axon

thread

Terminal buttons 

bulb-like structures at the end of axons 

Multipolar neurons

one axon and many dendrites 

Bipolar neurons 

one axon and one dendrite

Unipolar neurons

one axon that divides in one dendrite, with one branch receiving sensory information and the other transmitting information to the CNS 

Sensory neurons 

detect changes in external/internal environments in the CNS and PNS. 

Motor neurons

control muscle contraction and gland secretion in the CNS and PNS 

Interneurons/relay neuronsPyramidal neurons  

involved in cognition in the CNS

Pyramidal neurons

distinct “psychic cells” with a long dendrite, basal dendrites and a single axon.

Glial cells 

Non-neuronal supporting cells

Microglia  

Modified immune cells that act as scavengers. 

Ependymal cells

Create barriers between compartments.    Are the source of neural stem cells.

“star cells”    Physically support neurons, provide nourishment by secreting neurotrophic factors, take up/absorb K+ neurotransmitters, help form the blood-brain barrier, clean up debris and form scar tissue when neurons die, control chemical composition of surrounding fluid.

Oligodendrocytes 

Support axons, and produce the myelin sheath. 

 

In the CNS, it is wrapped around several axons.

Myelin sheath

a protective, insulating layer of fatty lipids around the axon 

Nodes of ranvier

the bare portion of the axon; the gaps in the myelin sheath 

Schwann cells 

Produce the myelin sheath. 

 

In the PNS, a Schwann cell wraps around one axon.

Blood-brain barrier

a semi-permeable barrier between the CNS and circulatory system, regulating the flow of nutrients to the brain. 

Area postrema  

a region of the medulla where the blood-barrier is weak, allowing toxins in the blood to stimulate the area, inducing vomiting. 

Electrical potential

electrical voltage changes caused by ion movement. 

Membrane potential 

Electrical charge and a voltage difference across the cell membrane. 

 

Is a measure (in millivolts) of the difference in electrical charge inside and outside the cell. 

 

Is a stored-up source of electrical energy (potential energy). 

Resting potential 

Membrane potential of a neuron when it is not firing (usually – 70 mV). 

 

The charge of the resting potential relates to the inside of the cell, indicating whether the inside of the cell is more negative or positive in relation to the outside of the cell.

Depolarisation 

reduction of negative charge of the membrane potential when the neuron is stimulated. 

Repolarisation

the cell membrane returns to its resting state. 

Hyperpolarisation 

Increase in the severity of the membrane potential temporarily, increasing the negative charge  

Action potential

A rapid electrical impulse generated by excitable cells that travels down the axon, forming the basis for information transmission/conduction. 

 

Are only a temporary change to the electrical potential of the cell, natural, triggered by a specific stimulus, and all-or-nothing (meaning, they fully rely on the threshold of excitation being reached). 

Threshold of excitation

The value the membrane potential must reach to produce action potential (usually around – 55 mV). 

 

A boundary for how excited cells have to be for the neuron to fire. 

Diffusion

movement of particles/molecules from areas of a high concentration to areas of a low concentration

Electrostatic pressure

When substances dissolve in water, they split into 2 parts (ions) with opposing electrical charge (Na+ and Cl-). 

 

The exerted interaction of ions, either attraction or repulsion. 

Intracellular fluid 

fluid inside cells