HIS280 Second Term Flashcards

Neo-Confucianism

A major intellectual transformation in Chinese history that occurred primarily during the Song dynasty and was further popularized during the Yuan. It was in part Confucianism’s response to the rise of Buddhism that added an additional dimension of metaphysical contemplation.

It redefined human relations within Chinese society, emphasizing stricter social hierarchy and the inherent goodness of human nature. It mainly split between the principle (li) and mind (xin) schools. Zhu Xi is a key figure to the former

Zhu Xi (c. 1130-1200)

One of the most important figures to the rise of Neo-Confucianism, whose annotations of the Four Books and Five Classics define much of their later interpretations.

He argued for the examination of the fundamental “principles” of everything, and articulated that human were born good only to later lose their original nature via distortion by material and psychological desires. His main goals were to enforce structure and order.

Song Dynasty (c. 960-1279)

A dynasty whose rule emphasized civil officers and the state over military prowess, privileging the literati (wenren) class in particular. During this period, the Civil Service Examinations became standardized, and literary thought blended Confucianism, Daoism, and Chan Buddhism.

Material and commercial culture flourished despite the loss of the northern Silk Road routes, and there was a shift towards maritime trade, though they lacked horses. Threats from the north were constant.

Song dynasty print culture

Rose in tandem with greater endorsement of the literati sphere, Neo-Confucianism which emphasized studies of the classics and education, the standardization of the Civil Service Examinations, and commercialization.

Han Yu (c. 768-824)

A writer who served in the Tang court, often seen as a precursory thinker to Neo-Confucianism. In a memorial to the emperor, he heavily criticized Buddhism, namely their principles of renouncing material things and roles, calling it irresponsible and hypocritical. He called for a revival of Confucian studies, and was banished for his memorial.

Zhou Dunyi (c. 1017-1073)

A Neo-Confucian thinker known for borrowing/sharing concepts with Daoism as well as Buddhist approached, including: Yinyang (balance of forces, male-female relations), Taiji (origin of the universe), and Wuxing (five elements).

He was a major influence to the recognition of a cosmic order within Confucian worldviews, with human nature, ethics, and politics all being derived from this.

The Cheng Brothers

Cheng Hao (1032-1085): pioneer of the School of Li (principle) who emphasized lived moral experience and ren (benevolence) as a cosmic principle and thus an ethical life as cosmic participation. Morality is thus human nature’s fullest expression. Also spoke briefly of the School of Xin (heart-mind)

Cheng Yi (1033-1107): more concerned with moral discipline and heavenly order, arguing that moral goodness was ontologically guaranteed and all evil arose from human desires. He also reinforced stricter gender roles and the repression of desire, with some Buddhist influence.

Qingming Shanghe Tu

A well-known scroll painting (often attributed to Zheng Zeduan) that depicts the Song Dynasty capital Bianjing (modern day Kaifeng) during a festival. While outwardly depicting the city as busy yet orderly and prosperous, some subtler details such as a group of what seems to be panicking sailors underneath a bridge underly emerging social issues brewing underneath the surface.

Yuan Dynasty (1271/79-1368)

The formation of the Mongol Empire (c. 1206) is attributed to Genghis Khan, but the dynasty’s formation was under Kublai. Officially established after the defeat of the Song in 1279, this dynasty fully adopted Neo-Confucianism and re-established the Civil Service Exams after a few decades of banning them.

There was a racial hierarchy that featured the Mongols at the top and the Southern Chinese at the bottom, and Chinese officials were barred from official positions in court. It was also the first time China was fully ruled by a ‘foreign’ power. This period also saw a large degree of foreign trade and the introduction of new foods, knowledge, and technologies.

Genghis Khan (c. ?-1227)

a.k.a. Temujin, Chinggis Khan

The founder of the Mongol Empire, who fought primarily against the Tanguts in the southwest and the Jurchens in the southwest. His origins, apart from the semi-mythical post-humous constructions, are unclear. The same year he died, the Mongols finally annexed Xixia (the Tangut Empire)

Battle of Yehuling, 1211

A battle where more than four hundred thousands Jurchen soldiers were captured, killed, or surrendered. From here, Mongol-Jurchen relations were overturned, and the piecemealing of the Jurchen Jin dynasty as well as the conquest of the central Chinese provinces began.

Kublai Khan (1215-1294)

Founder of the Yuan dynasty and one of the many Mongol princes/grandsons of Genghis Khan. He is greatly praised in Marco Polo’s records as wealthy, powerful, and wise. In 1279, he conquered the remainders of the Song dynasty and established the first ‘foreign’ regime to fully rule China. Under his rule, the dynasty was mostly stable (Pax Mongolica), with increasing trade relations and a racial hierarchy that placed the Han Chinese at the bottom and barred them from official positions.

Battle of Yashan, 1279

The Song dynasty, plagued by corruption, factionalism, and economic downtown, lost the chance to defend their northern borders and during this battle, the last Song emperor, a nine-year-old strapped to the back of a loyal minister, died during a naval ‘battle’ where they were trying to escape to modern-day Vietnam.

Marco Polo (c. 1254-1324)

A Venetian merchant from a family of merchants that travelled frequently along the Silk Road. During his visit to the Mongol Yuan Empire, he allegedly met Kublai Khan, and also visited Hangzhou (Kinsay) under his dispatch. Although his records are dubious, he nevertheless stirred people’s curiousity about the Far East and portrayed the Yuan dynasty as atypical but prosperous.

Ni Zan (1301-1374)

One of the most eminent Han Chinese painters and literati of the Yuan dynasty. His records offer a perspective into how daily practices such as eating, drinking, and hospitality were extensions of literati self-fashioning, as well as the Han elites’ struggles over cultural authority and identity in a period where traditional avenues of bureaucratic service were curtailed. His recorded recipes reveal shifts in Yuan-era Han culture via ingredients, preparation methods, and culinary classifications.

Zhennan Pagoda

Related to the debate over the (dis)continuity of Chinese civilization, Kublai Khan, after the conquest of the Song, sent a Tibetan monk to govern Southern China at this location. Beneath it were the dug-up remains of the Song emperors, symbolizing a spiritual governance of the Song.

Later, however, there is a story of a young Confucian scholar who secretly re-buried the remains and planted holly trees in their place. As evergreens, these trees represent the steadfastness of Chinese spirit even among the harsh winter.

Blue-and-white porcelain

While the genuine Yuan dynasty wares were only made in the hundreds, as a global commodity, China produced these porcelains en-masse. Using cobalt from Arabia, they combined designs/production from Chinese factories, Arabic tastes/symbols, and European fashions in the production of wares for global trade. This was significant for the beginning of chinoiserie—the West’s taste for Chinese commodities.

The Black Death, 1340s

The devastating epidemic led to death across the Mongol Yuan Empire, rebellions in the 1350s and 60s, and the rise of organizations and figures such as the White Lotus Religion and Zhu Yuanzhang

Ming Dynasty (c. 1368-1644)

A dynasty in a very unique position as the last one created and ruled by the Han Chinese, important to the transformation of Chinese identity and nationality. Many Chinese social and political structures in the modern era were shaped during this time, and for many Han Chinese, if 1279 signaled an end to Chinese civilization, then 1368 was a revival, yet as the second-to-last dynasty it also fell to the Manchu Qing.

Zhu Yuanzhang (c. 1328-1398)

a.k.a. Hongwu

The founding emperor of the Ming Dynasty whose Ancestral Injunctions no successor went against. Like Liu Bang, he comes from a completely grassroots background and joined a revolutionary force against the Yuan dynasty for survival, eventually rising to the top. He was hated for his treachery and brutality, but nevertheless left an important legacy for the Ming dynasty.

Interestingly, in his discourse he acknowledged the legitimacy of the Yuan, but claimed they had lost the Mandate of Heaven and led to the people’s suffering. During his reign, he further centralized the empire and tried to ensure the dominance of his family. During his rise, he raised one of the largest armies in Chinese history and used various corporal punishments to instill order.

White Lotus Sect

A sect that dates back to the Song, initially believing in no killing, no drinking, no onions, and no milk. They believed that the Maitreya Buddha would descend in China and save the world, and that their leaders were reincarnations of the Buddha, leading rebellions in their name. Following the chaos in the wake of the Black Death, they led a massive rebellion under Han Shantong and Liu Futong in the name of restoring the Song dynasty, dressing in red turbans as a callback to the end-of-the-Han’s Yellow Turban Rebellion.

Zhang Shicheng (c. 1321-1367)

A scholar during the Yuan who later became a warlord. He led a regime and resisted the Yuan in the southeast. Significantly, one of his military advisors later from the Romance of the Three Kingdoms.

Surveillance departments

At the beginning of the Ming dynasty under Zhu Yuanzhang, all prime ministers were abolished and surveillance departments were crated that checked the deeds of all officials and was controlled by the eunuchs. The eunuchs weren’t allowed direct interference with the empire’s politics, but were employed to keep officials in check through surveillance. It is often seen as a sign of the Ming’s unprecedented centralization.

The tributary system

An older system re-established during the Ming, it is both an economic trade system as well as a system of political recognition, where other kingdoms would bring gifts to the court in return for titles, privileges, and gifts. The main privilege was the right to trade in the Chinese empire, and it was also a way for the Ming to establish diplomatic relations. In particular, Zhu Yuanzhang’s Ancestral Injunctions provide a list of kingdoms that were not to be invaded, and for some of these countries, the Ming were to serve as protectors (Joseon).

The Caoyun system

A tribute grain transport system that served in Ming imperial times to supply the officialdom and the military garrisons in the capital with staple food, utilizing the Grand Canal to feed central courts from south to north. These grains were shipped by certified merchants, which the Ming also allowed to carry their own goods, by proxy facilitating the growth of north-to-south markets within the Chinese empire.

Yongle Dadian (Encyclopedia)

A massive encyclopedia commissioned by Emperor Chengzu of Ming, to showcase the empire’s knowledge and cultural dominance. Most of it was lost, but some of it is preserved in Japan and Korea.

Zheng He (c. 1371-1433)

A great maritime explorer and Ming official of Muslim background, one of Emperor Yongle’s closest advisors. He spoke fluent Arabic and worked alongside a number of eunuch officials and historians.

A capable commander, martial artist, and skillful diplomat, he was also loyal to the emperor, making him the perfect choice to lead the Ming’s massive treasure fleet, which was disbanded in part due to no one being able to replace him after his death. He also had a hand in reinforcing the Ming’s dominance in their tributary network and foreign relations, strengthening political connections between China and the rest of Asia. He died during his last voyage.

Treasure fleet

A massive and visually impressive fleet with around 28 000+ crew and 300+ ships. Commanded by Zheng He, some ships specialized in carrying domesticated animals, other drinkable water, others cargo. It represented the power, advanced shipbuilding techniques, and sophisticated crews of the Chinese empire, showcasing the power of the Ming court and extending the diplomatic power of the emperor.

What they brought back, however, was more important to the court than the actual people of the empire. Due to various reasons including economic difficulties, pushback from Confucian officials, and structural concerns following Zheng He’s death, it was ultimately disbanded.

Battle of Tumubao, 1449

A battle where the Mongols invaded and captured the emperor, almost leading to the unexpected end of the Ming dynasty. If not for Yu Qian, a loyal and capable eunuch who furiously defended the borders and tried to keep everything in order, the dynasty would have ended, and afterwards, the Ming focused even further on internal stability.

Battle of Sarhu, 1619

Refers to a series of battles between the Later Jin Dynasty and Ming Dynasty, along with forces from Joseon. It occurred after the unification of the Jurchens under Nurhachi and the declaration of the independent Manchu empire’s war against China. These battles, with the Chinese allied forces almost being wiped out, proved that they were no longer able to subjugate the Manchu as a tributary kingdom, but rather had to acknowledge them as an enemy force.

Vernacularization of popular literature

During the Yuan and Ming, as the Chinese were barred from official positions in the former and the examinations were increasingly competitive in the latter, much of the literature produced in the Chinese empire was by skilled scholars who weren’t able to make it in the bureaucracy, or left. These works, written in vernacular language and thus more accessible to the populace, often convey a sense of disillusionment with the social systems.

Wang Yangming (1472-1529)

A Neo-Confucian scholar of the Ming Dynasty that is regarded as a sage-like person. He is well-known critic of Zhu Xi’s philosophy and an advocate of the xinxue school of Confucianism. He argued for unity between mind and acting, with principles being things that could be investigated by examining the mind and extending innate, moral knowledge.

He thus rejected Zhu Xi’s approach of investigating fundamental principles while embracing the idea of the heavens and rejecting human desires. There is heavy evidence of Chan Buddhist influence in his philosophy, particularly in his conceptions of sagehood. He also possessed a massive pool of practical skills and was a skilled military strategist who was central to putting down Prince Ning’s Rebellion in 1519.

Commercialization during the Ming

Specialization of production: many of the Ming cities specialized in producing specific commodities and commercial talents

Material mobility: Partially due to specialization, many products made by commoners made their way up the social ranks

Merchant-literati tensions: as the merchant class grew, they pushed for social recognition, which was met with pushback from the scholars who increasingly developed their own fashions, such as creating specific manuals detailing how best to curate a taste suitable for the upper class

Jiangnan as the economic and cultural heartland: home to over half of China’s literati elites and officials and very agriculturally developed

Liu Rushi (c. 1618-1664)

An accomplished and well-educated courtesan of the Ming Dynasty who is well-known for her refusal to surrender to the Manchu after the fall of the Ming. Notably, she chose to commit suicide in the name of honour while her cowardly literati husband was instead the one that surrendered.

Foot-binding

Developing during the Song and becoming increasingly prevalent during the Ming, this practice is generally seen as a sign of strict gender relations and increasing restrictions on women. It is also in part due to an increasing fetishization of women’s feet by male literati.

Jiuse Caiqi

A socio-cultural critique brought forward in large part by the work of failed scholars who turned to popular literature, referring to alcohol, lust, wealth gain, and temperament. It was used to criticize social elites as threats to the moral order, and is often depicted in works such as Jinping Mei.

Jin Ping Mei (The Plum in the Golden Vase)

Written by an anonymous author (Xiaoxiao Sheng) who wrote under a pseudonym (believed to be Feng Menlong), it contains a bitter critique of social and literati elites through the story of a wealthy merchant and his many beautiful concubines. Though morally corrupt, they were able to influence society through money, and the story if often seen as using seductresses and moral scapegoats and symbols of hedonism. It is also written in local Jiangnan dialect, showing the vernacularization of literature.

The wakou

Literally meaning “Japanese pirates” (despite many being ethnically Chinese), they were related to China’s issues with coastal security and one of the main reasons why the Chinese government of the Ming placed heavy restrictions on maritime trade. This, in turn, led to the rise of Chinese merchant-pirates who collaborated with the Japanese as many from coastal communities saw an opportunity to gain wealth through these means.

Zhang Juzheng’s (c. 1525-1582) One-Whip Reform

A fiscal law first instituted during the mid-Ming Dynasty, aiming to primarily simplify the code by commuting most obligations towards the central government (land/poll taxes, labour obligations, tributes, etc) into a single silver payment based on the population and cultivated land of each prefecture. This way, they could reduce the costs of tax collection while also increasing the tax base.

Nevertheless, this reform contributed to the destabilization of the tax system, as particularly in less-commercialized regions, silver was more expensive and made it difficult for farmers to deliver upon tax obligations. It led to many rebellions, especially in the northern border regions.

Matteo Ricci (c. 1552-1610)

A Jesuit in the Ming court who translated Christian works into Chinese and converted many Chinese people to Christianity, including minister Xu Guangqi. Him and the other missionaries also worked as mapmakers, weaponry designers, diplomates, and scholars. He also introduced Western art styles into the Ming court and is a figure that represents the influx of new knowledge both from within the Ming and from outside sources, which led to the compilation of various encyclopedias.

Huang Zongxi (c. 1610-1695)

One of the foremost Chinese scholars and reformers in the late Ming to early Qing, whose critiques of the state of Chinese politics and the intellectual sphere highlight many aspects that led to the decline of the Ming Dynasty. In particular, he noted:

1. Internal disunity and factionalism

2. bookish scholarism that was impractical and advocated learnings that were divorced from reality

3. undifferentiated boundaries between public and private interest, reflected by a redefinition of tianxia and dynasty, with the emperor seeing the world as his private enterprise

He also called for a revival of pre-Qin Mencian demo-centrism