Personal Relationships

Aim (Buss (1989))

To make predictions about gender differences in mate choice based on Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Participants (Buss (1989))

Over 10,000 individuals from 37 different cultures across six continents and five islands. The mean age was 23.5 years for males and 22.5 years for females.

Method (Buss (1989))

Cross-cultural survey using questionnaires. This method allowed for broad data collection across diverse populations to identify universal patterns.

Procedure (Buss (1989))

Participants completed a questionnaire that included biographical data, marriage information (preferred age of spouse, children desired), a four-point rating scale for 18 characteristics (e.g., good financial prospects, good looks, chastity, ambition), and a ranking of 13 characteristics (e.g., good earning potential, physically attractive). Data was collected by native citizens of each country and mailed to Buss for analysis. Questionnaires were translated using gender-neutral terminology.

Results (Buss (1989))

Males across all 37 cultures preferred a younger partner and valued 'good looks' more highly than females. Females in 36 out of 37 cultures preferred financial prospects and ambition in a male partner. Spain was the exception but showed a similar direction.

Conclusion (Buss (1989))

There is an evolutionary explanation for forming relationships, where gender differences in mate selection reflect differences in reproductive capacity. Males prefer younger, attractive mates (indicating fertility), while females prefer males with good earning potential and ambition (indicating ability to support offspring).

Aim (Adeagbo (2015))

To investigate how cognition influences relationship formation in a sample of gay men in South Africa.

Participants (Adeagbo (2015))

10 interracial gay male couples in South Africa, aged 23-58 years old.

Method (Adeagbo (2015))

Longitudinal study using semi-structured interviews. This approach allowed for in-depth exploration of relationship dynamics over time.

Procedure (Adeagbo (2015))

10 interracial gay male couples were assessed over an eight-month period. During this time, the men underwent individual semi-structured interviews. Questions were asked about various aspects of their daily lives as part of a couple, with some specifically designed to assess factors influencing relationship formation.

Results (Adeagbo (2015))

Resources (e.g., money) and personal characteristics (e.g., age, physique) were found to be less important in relationship formation. Instead, how a potential partner is perceived, particularly attributes like kindness and generosity, was most influential.

Conclusion (Adeagbo (2015))

The perception of a potential partner's positive attributes, such as kindness and generosity, is more influential in relationship formation for gay men than material resources or physical characteristics. This highlights the role of cognitive factors in relationship formation.

Aim (Stephanou (2012))

To assess attribution in romantic relationships and its link to relationship satisfaction among university students.

Participants (Stephanou (2012))

386 undergraduate and postgraduate students (176 male, 210 female) aged 18-25 years from six Greek universities. Their current relationship length ranged from six months to 3.5 years.

Method (Stephanou (2012))

Survey using questionnaires (Causal Dimension Scale II and relationship satisfaction questions). This method allowed for quantitative measurement of attributions and satisfaction.

Procedure (Stephanou (2012))

Participants first rated their satisfaction with their current relationship by completing four questions on a scale of 1-7, allowing researchers to categorize relationships as 'good' or 'bad'. Following this, they completed the Causal Dimension Scale II questionnaire, designed to measure their attributional behavior regarding relationship events.

Results (Stephanou (2012))

Students in good relationships tended to attribute success to internal factors (e.g., good communication, understanding, honesty, love) within themselves and their partner. In contrast, students in bad relationships demonstrated external attributions, such as a lack of control over the situation and blaming their partner’s behavior.

Conclusion (Stephanou (2012))

Attributional styles are significantly linked to relationship satisfaction. Internal attributions for success are characteristic of positive relationships, while external attributions for problems are common in negative relationships, suggesting implications for communication within romantic relationships.

Aim (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

To investigate whether negative family communication patterns would have a more adverse effect on adopted children than biological children in terms of their social adjustment.

Participants (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

592 families from the Minnesota area in the USA. Each family included two parents, a target adolescent, and a younger sibling. 35% had both biological children, 17% had an adopted target adolescent, and 48% had both adopted children.

Method (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

Longitudinal study using laboratory-based tests (video recordings), surveys, and interviews. Teacher ratings of adolescent behavior were also collected.

Procedure (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

Each family underwent a range of tests in a laboratory setting, including a 5-minute taped video of their interactions, surveys, and interviews. For 69% of families, a teacher rated the target adolescent’s behavior at school. Key measures included conversation orientation (spontaneous interactions) and conformity orientation (shared attitudes, often influenced by parental authority).

Results (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

Both biological and adopted adolescents were more likely to be well-adjusted if their families regularly used conversation and conformity. However, adopted adolescents were more vulnerable to poor adjustment than biological adolescents if families were high in conformity (very protective) or low in both measures (laissez-faire).

Conclusion (Rueter and Koerner (2008))

Positive family communication helps both adopted and biological children, but adopted children are more adversely affected by negative family communication patterns than biological children. This suggests that biologically-related family members may share similar inherited thinking patterns, making biological children more resilient to negative family communication.

Aim (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

To study how far men and women in Finland in intercultural marriages had considered divorce in comparison to men and women in monocultural marriages.

Participants (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

6,000 participants in intercultural marriages (native Finnish, Swedish, or Sami speakers married to foreign language speakers, and vice versa) randomly drawn from the Population Register of Finland in 2012. A comparison group of 3,058 participants in monocultural marriages from an earlier 2008 study (aged 25-44 years).

Method (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

Survey (postal and internet option) for intercultural couples; comparison with existing data for monocultural couples. This mixed-method approach allowed for both new data collection and comparative analysis.

Procedure (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

A postal survey with an internet option was used to gather data from participants in intercultural marriages. Questions covered various issues, including sources of conflict (money, friends, religion, value orientation) and whether they had considered divorce in the last year. Data from a previous study on monocultural marriages was used as a comparison group.

Results (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

Females in both intercultural and monocultural marriages showed similar levels of divorce consideration. However, males in intercultural marriages were more likely to have considered divorce than males in monocultural marriages. This was speculated to be due to conflicts about different values, particularly between Finnish males and foreign-born wives.

Conclusion (Lainiala and Säävälä (2013))

Intercultural marriages, especially for Finnish men married to foreign-born wives, show a higher likelihood of divorce consideration, possibly due to value conflicts. This suggests that cultural factors can contribute to marital breakdown in this group, although direct comparison of values between groups was not possible.

Aim (Kurdek (1991))

To investigate the reasons why homosexual relationships dissolve.

Participants (Kurdek (1991))

13 couples who had been involved in a longitudinal study of gay and lesbian relationships but had separated during the study.

Method (Kurdek (1991))

Qualitative study using an open-ended survey. This method allowed for participants to express their reasons in their own words.

Procedure (Kurdek (1991))

Participants who had separated from a longitudinal study completed an open-ended survey investigating the reasons behind their break-up. The responses were then coded, analyzed, and grouped into categories based on common themes.

Results (Kurdek (1991))

The main reasons for dissolution, in order of size, were: communication problems, partner problems (e.g., substance dependency), sexual issues, self-identity issues/fusion (losing individual identity), incompatibility, and control. Communication breakdown was identified as the major issue.

Conclusion (Kurdek (1991))

Communication breakdown is the major issue in the dissolution of homosexual relationships, indicating that interpersonal communication factors are crucial in relationship breakdown. Kurdek noted that this conclusion is very similar to findings in research on heterosexual relationship breakdowns.

Aim (Boksem et al. (2013))

To investigate the effect of testosterone administration on trust and reciprocity in a financial decision-making task (the Trust Game).

Participants (Boksem et al. (2013))

54 female participants.

Method (Boksem et al. (2013))

Laboratory experiment using a double-blind procedure with testosterone vs placebo.

Procedure (Boksem et al. (2013))

Participants consumed testosterone or placebo and played the Trust Game as both investor and trustee with an anonymous partner.

Results (Boksem et al. (2013))

Testosterone increased antisocial behavior when participants were investors, but increased prosocial behavior when they were trustees.

Conclusion (Boksem et al. (2013))

Testosterone’s effects depend on context; it can promote both antisocial and prosocial behavior depending on perceived threat and social status.

Aim (Sherif et al. (1961))

To investigate how intergroup conflict and cooperation develop, and to test the principles of realistic conflict theory.

Participants (Sherif et al. (1961))

20 12-year-old American boys attending a summer camp.

Method (Sherif et al. (1961))

Field experiment conducted at Robbers Cave State Park over three weeks.

Procedure (Sherif et al. (1961))

Boys were randomly divided into two groups (Rattlers and Eagles).

• Phase 1: Groups bonded separately without knowing about each other.

• Phase 2: Groups were introduced and competition was created through games and rewards, leading to hostility.

• Phase 3: Superordinate goals (e.g., fixing a broken water supply) required cooperation between groups.

Results (Sherif et al. (1961))

Competition led to strong intergroup hostility and aggression.
Cooperation through shared goals reduced conflict and improved relations.

Conclusion (Sherif et al. (1961))

Intergroup conflict arises from competition over resources, but can be reduced through cooperation toward shared goals (supporting realistic conflict theory).

Aim (Adachi et al. (2014))

To investigate whether intergroup cooperation in a violent video game reduces prejudice and discrimination.

Participants (Adachi et al. (2014))

138 Canadian undergraduate students (after exclusions), mean age ~18.75 years.

Method (Adachi et al. (2014))

Laboratory experiment using a cooperative violent video game task.

Procedure (Adachi et al. (2014))

Participants played a 12-minute violent video game with a partner.
The partner was either:

• Ingroup (same university) or

• Outgroup (University at Buffalo student).
  They cooperated to defeat enemies, then prejudice and discrimination were measured.

Results (Adachi et al. (2014))

Intergroup cooperation reduced prejudice toward the outgroup and Americans.
Participants were less likely to discriminate against outgroup partners.

Conclusion (Adachi et al. (2014))

Cooperation toward shared goals (even in violent games) can reduce prejudice and discrimination.

Aim (Vang and Fox (2014))

To investigate whether cooperation or competition in a virtual environment reduces racial bias.

Participants (Vang and Fox (2014))

White participants

Method (Vang and Fox (2014))

Laboratory experiment using a virtual environment (Second Life).

Procedure (Vang and Fox (2014))

Participants played a non-violent anagram game either:

• Cooperatively or competitively

• With a white (ingroup) or black (outgroup) avatar
  Afterward, attitudes toward the avatar were measured.

Results (Vang and Fox (2014))

Participants showed more positive attitudes toward black (outgroup) avatars than white (ingroup) avatars after both cooperation and competition.

Conclusion (Vang and Fox (2014))

Intergroup interaction in virtual environments can reduce bias, though real-world effects were not measured.

Aim (Baumeister et al. (1988))

To investigate whether leaders are more likely to engage in prosocial behaviour than followers.

Participants (Baumeister et al. (1988))

32 male and female participants.

Method (Baumeister et al. (1988))

Laboratory experiment using a simulated group discussion.

Procedure (Baumeister et al. (1988))

Participants were assigned as leader or follower in a group decision task.
During the task, a fake emergency (man choking) was played over an intercom.
Helping behaviour was measured.

Results (Baumeister et al. (1988))

A clear difference was found between conditions: 80% of participants assigned as leaders attempted to help the choking victim compared to only 35% of followers.
Leaders also responded more quickly and were more likely to interrupt the task to take action, suggesting a stronger sense of responsibility extending beyond their assigned role.

Conclusion (Baumeister et al. (1988))

Leadership increases feelings of responsibility, making prosocial behaviour more likely.

Aim (Levine et al. (2001))

To investigate cross-cultural differences in helping behaviour in cities around the world.

Participants (Levine et al. (2001))

Members of the public across multiple international cities.

Method (Levine et al. (2001))

Field experiment using staged helping situations.

Procedure (Levine et al. (2001))

Researchers staged three scenarios:

1. A pedestrian drops a pen on the street without noticing

2. A pedestrian wearing a leg brace drops some magazines

3. A blind pedestrian with a cane waits at traffic lights for assistance to cross the street.
Helping rates were recorded to create an overall helping index.

Results (Levine et al. (2001))

Helping behaviour varied significantly across cities. Cities such as Rio de Janeiro showed consistently high helping rates across all three tasks, whereas cities like New York City showed lower overall helping.
No significant correlation was found between helping behaviour and levels of individualism vs collectivism. However, there was a negative correlation between economic wealth (purchasing power) and helping rates—wealthier cities tended to show less spontaneous helping.

Conclusion (Levine et al. (2001))

Prosocial behaviour varies across cultures and is influenced more by economic factors than cultural dimensions like individualism.

Aim (Toi and Batson (1982))

To investigate the effects of empathy and ease of escape on helping behaviour.

Participants (Toi and Batson (1982))

Female psychology students.

Method (Toi and Batson (1982))

Laboratory experiment manipulating empathy and ease of escape.

Procedure (Toi and Batson (1982))

Participants listened to a recording of Carol describing her accident.
Empathy focus and likelihood of future interaction (escape) were manipulated.
Participants were asked if they would help her with class notes.

Results (Toi and Batson (1982))

Participants in the high-empathy condition were significantly more likely to offer help than those in the low-empathy condition, regardless of escape condition.
Ease of escape had a smaller but noticeable effect: participants expecting future contact (low escape) were slightly more likely to help, but this effect was weaker than empathy, supporting the empathy–altruism hypothesis.

Conclusion (Toi and Batson (1982))

Empathy is a primary motivator of prosocial behaviour, stronger than situational escape factors.

Aim (Darley and Latané (1968))

To test the diffusion of responsibility hypothesis.

Participants (Darley and Latané (1968))

First-year university students.

Method (Darley and Latané (1968))

Laboratory experiment with a staged seizure emergency.

Procedure (Darley and Latané (1968))

Participants believed they were in groups of varying sizes via intercom.
A seizure was simulated and helping behaviour was recorded.

Results (Darley and Latané (1968))

Helping behaviour decreased as group size increased:

• 85–100% helped in the two-person condition

• 85% helped in the three-person condition

• 60% helped in the six-person condition
  Participants in smaller groups also responded more quickly, while those in larger groups showed delays, indicating diffusion of responsibility.

Conclusion (Darley and Latané (1968))

As the number of bystanders increases, individuals feel less personal responsibility to act.

Aim (Darley and Batson (1973))

To investigate the effect of time pressure on helping behaviour.

Participants (Darley and Batson (1973))

Theology students.

Method (Darley and Batson (1973))

Field experiment.

Procedure (Darley and Batson (1973))

Participants were assigned to high, medium, or low time pressure conditions.
They encountered a person in distress while walking to give a talk.

Results (Darley and Batson (1973))

Helping rates were strongly influenced by time pressure:

• ~63% helped in the low hurry condition

• ~45% in the medium condition

• ~10% in the high hurry condition
  The topic of the talk (Good Samaritan vs job talk) had no significant effect on helping.

Conclusion (Darley and Batson (1973))

Situational factors like cognitive busy-ness significantly reduce prosocial behaviour, even overriding moral intentions.

Aim (Grant and Gino (2010))

To investigate whether expressions of gratitude increase prosocial behaviour and to understand the psychological mechanism behind this effect.

Participants (Grant and Gino (2010))

69 university students.

Method (Grant and Gino (2010))

Laboratory experiment using an email-based manipulation (gratitude vs neutral condition).

Procedure (Grant and Gino (2010))

Participants edited a cover letter for a student.
They then received an email:

• Neutral condition: simple request for further help

• Gratitude condition: included an expression of thanks
  Participants were later asked if they would help edit a second letter.
  Measures of social worth were also collected.

Results (Grant and Gino (2010))

Participants in the gratitude condition were significantly more likely to help:

• 66% (23/35) helped in the gratitude condition

• 32% (11/34) helped in the neutral condition

This demonstrates a substantial increase in helping behaviour due to gratitude.
Further analysis showed that expressions of gratitude increased participants’ sense of social worth (feeling valued), which mediated the increase in prosocial behaviour.
Follow-up findings indicated that this effect generalised beyond the original participants were more likely to help others as well, not just the person who expressed gratitude.

Conclusion (Grant and Gino (2010))

Expressions of gratitude promote prosocial behaviour by increasing individuals’ sense of social worth, and this effect can extend to helping others more broadly.

Aim (Tajfel et al 1971)

aimed to discover the minimum requirements for participants to identify themselves as members of a group through social categorization.

Method (Tajfel et al 1971)

Forty-eight 14–15-year-old boys from a British school were randomly assigned to a 'Klee' group or a 'Kandinsky' group based on arbitrary preferences. They completed tasks anonymously, identified only by code numbers.

Procedures (Tajfel et al 1971)

- Participants were divided into two groups based on arbitrary criteria (Klee or Kandinsky preference).

- They were shown matrices that depicted different distributions of points.

- Each participant was instructed to allocate points between members of their own group and members of the other group, with the goal of analyzing their distribution choices.

Participants (Tajfel et al 1971)

The participants were 48 boys aged 14–15 from a British school.