ap pysch unit 3- sensory

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energy

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

top-down processing

- information processing guided by higher-level mental processes
- as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

psychophysics

study of the relationship between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of theme
- light, sound, pressure, taste

absolute threshold

minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

signal detection theory

- predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
- assumes that there is no single absolute threshold
- detection depends partly on person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

subliminal

- when stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

difference threshold

- minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time
- just noticeable difference (JND)

weber's law

to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

selective attention (cocktail party effect)

- focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
- as in the cocktail party effect

transduction

conversion of one form of energy to another
- sensation: transforming stimulus energies into neural impulses

wavelength

distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next

intensity

amount of energy in a wave determined by amplitude

hue

dimension of color determined by wavelength of light

accommodation

involves altering one's existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences.

pupil

adjustable opening in the center of the eye

iris

a ring of muscle that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

lens

transparent structure behind pupil that changes shape to focus images on the retina

retina

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptors rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

acuity

sharpness of vision; the visual ability to resolve fine detail

nearsightedness

nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front

farsightedness

condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the images of near objects is focused behind retina

rods

- peripheral retina receptors
- detect black, white and gray
- for peripheral or twilight conditions

cones

- receptors near center of retina
- fine detail and color vision
- for daylight or well-lit conditions

optic nerve

nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

fovea

central point in the retina, around which eye's cones cluster

blind spot

point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind spot" because there are no receptor cells located there

feature detection

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features

parallel processing

simultaneous processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously

young-helmholtz trichromatic theory

three different retinal color receptors

opponent-process theory

opposing retinal processes enable color vision

color blindness

the inability to discriminate between colors and to perceive color hues

color constancy

perceiving familiar object as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

pitch

- a tone's highness or lowness
- depends on frequency

middle ear

chamber between eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

inner ear

innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

cochlea

coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through

hammer, anvil, stirrup

- attached to the eardrum
- in the middle of the chain of bones
- attached to the membrane-covered opening that connects the middle ear with the inner ear

eardum

separates the outer ear from the middle ear

auditory nerve

originates in the cochlea, from which nerve fibers pass through several layers of nuclei in the brainstem to terminate predominantly in the auditory cortex.

place theory

(a) sounds of different frequencies stimulate different places along the basilar membrane and (b) pitch is coded by the place of maximal stimulation.

frequency theory

whatever the pitch of a sound wave, nerve impulses of a corresponding frequency will be sent to the auditory nerve.

conduction hearing loss

happens when sounds cannot get through the outer and middle ear.

sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness)

the loss or absence of hearing function due to pathology in the inner ear or along the nerve pathway from the inner ear to the brainstem.

touch

the ability to perceive an object or other stimulus that comes into contact with the surface of the skin

pain

an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage

gate-control theory

a mechanism, in the spinal cord, in which pain signals can be sent up to the brain to be processed to accentuate the possible perceived pain, or attenuate it at the spinal cord itself.

pain control

understanding and managing the thoughts, emotions and behaviors that accompany the discomfort

taste

the sense devoted to the detection of molecules dissolved in liquids

sensory interaction

the sense devoted to the detection of molecules dissolved in liquids

smell

the sense that enables an organism to detect the odors of volatile substances.

olfactory nerve and what it does

the first cranial nerve, which carries sensory fibers concerned with the sense of smell

body position and movement

- the notion that a person's posture and body position can affect functions such as learning, memory, recall, and recovery
- a broad ranging field that includes both how the motor control system produces movements, and how the sensory system perceives these movements itself and from others.

kinesthesis

the sense that provides information through receptors in the muscles, tendons, and joints, enabling humans and other animals to control and coordinate their movements, including walking, talking, facial expressions, gestures, and posture.

vestibular sense

movement, gravity and/or balance sense, allows us to move smoothly

visual capture

tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

gestalt

an organized whole; tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

figure & ground

organization of the visual field objects that stand out from their surroundings

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimulation into coherent groups

depth perception

ability to see objects in three dimensions, allows us to judge distance

visual cliff

involves an apparent, but not actual drop from one surface to another, originally created to test babies' depth perception.

binocular cues

retinal disparity, convergence

monocular cues

relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, relative brightness

retinal disparity

use of both eyes and refers to the difference between the view that each eye receives of a given object or scene.

convergence

crowd behavior is a composite of the people who join, and people join a crowd because of their own underlying tendencies, which become enabled by the power of the group.

phi phenomenon

an optical illusion in which stationary objects shown in rapid succession, transcending the threshold at which they can be perceived separately, appear to move.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal image change; color, shape, size

perceptual adaptation

(vision) ability to adjust to an artificially displaced visual field;
prism glasses

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

context effects

context (environmental factors) that surrounds an event effects how an event is perceived and remembered.

human factor psychologists

explores how people and machines interact; how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors

extrasensory perception

controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input

parapsychology

study of paranormal phenomena