Probable Cause, Warrants, and Warrant Execution

Gates

Probable cause is based on the totality of the circumstances. Informant veracity, reliability, basis of knowledge, and police corroboration are flexible, intertwined factors.

Pringle

Probable cause can exist to arrest a car passenger where facts reasonably suggest common control/knowledge of contraband, but guilt must still be particularized to the person.

Whren

A traffic stop is valid if officers objectively have probable cause for a traffic violation. The officer's subjective/pretextual motive does not matter.

Heien

A stop based on an objectively reasonable mistake of law can be valid under the Fourth Amendment, but only when the law is genuinely ambiguous.

Summers

Officers executing a search warrant for a residence may detain occupants on the premises during the search for officer safety, flight prevention, and orderly completion of the search.

Mena

During a valid premises search, officers may detain occupants in handcuffs when reasonable for safety, and mere questioning does not create a separate seizure unless it prolongs the detention.

Wilson

Knock-and-announce is part of Fourth Amendment reasonableness when executing a warrant, but officers may skip it when there is reason to believe announcement would be dangerous, futile, or lead to destruction of evidence.