quick buzz words

Introns + exons

splicing

snRNPs, spliceosome

Intron removal

Promoter

transcription starts here

TATA box

RNA polymerase binding

Enhancer

Increases transcription

Silencer

Decreases transcription

increase in gene expression →

enhancer/promotor

Histone acetylation

increase in transcription (open chromatin) - eurochromatin

Histone deacetylation or methylation

Less transcription - heterochromatin

DNA methylation

gene silencing

mRNA levels ↓

Transcription likely decreased

Protein levels ↓ but mRNA normal

Translation/post-translational issue

Highly proliferative cells

Replication, DNA synthesis

something affecting DNA →

gene issue, mutation, cancer

Mutation in promoter

Transcription problem

Mutation in coding region

Protein sequence change

RNA polymerase

Makes RNA

DNA polymerase

Replicates DNA

retroviruses need

a reverse transcriptase

Helicase

unwinds DNA

ligase

Seals phosphodiester bonds

something with phosphate groups

Positive amino acids attracted

Active site mutation

Enzyme activity changes

Protease

Protein cleavage

Protein secretion

Rough ER → Golgi → Vesicle

Lots of protein synthesis

rough ER

Steroid synthesis

smooth ER

Detoxification

Smooth ER

Packaging proteins

golgi

• ATP production

• Oxidative phosphorylation

mitochondria

DNA storage

nucleus

G1

cell growth

5' cap

mRNA protection

Poly-A tail

mRNA stability

Okazaki fragments

Lagging strand

DNA binding protein

Lysine, Arginine

• Steroids

• Lipids

• Detoxification

• lipid synthesis

smooth ER

• Secreted proteins

• Membrane proteins

• Ribosomes

• protein synthesis

rough ER

• Packaging

• Sorting

• Vesicles

golgi

• Digestion

• Phagocytosis

• Hydrolytic enzymes

• degraditive enzymes

lysosome

• Fatty acids

• Hydrogen peroxide

• oxidation

peroxisome

ATP ↓

Glycolysis ↑

AMP ↑

Cell needs energy

glucagon -

fasting, released with low blood glucose

Insulin -

fed state - released when high blood glucose

NADH accumulation

ETC slows

Cyanide

ETC stops

Uncoupler

heat production

O₂ absent

ETC stops

• Albumin

• Plasma proteins

• Tissue ➜ Blood

Oncotic/Osmotic Pressure - pulls fluid in

• Blood pressure

• Capillary pressure

• Blood ➜ Tissue

Hydrostatic Pressure → pushes fluid out

Albumin ↑ → Blood oncotic pressure ↑

Water enters blood → Edema ↓

Albumin ↓ Blood oncotic pressure ↓

Water stays in tissue → Edema ↑

Blood Pressure ↑

Hydrostatic pressure ↑ , fluid leaves vessels edema increases

Blood osmolarity ↑

Water moves into blood

Tissue osmolarity ↑

Water moves into tissue

water follows

solute

Type I pneumocyte

gas exchange

Type II pneumocyte

surfactant

surfactant

Surface tension ↓

Asthma

Bronchoconstriction

Emphysema

Elastic recoil ↓

High altitude

EPO ↑

Water permeable

Water leaves

descending loop

Water impermeable

Salt leaves

ascending loop

Collecting duct

Water reabsorption ↑

Urine concentration ↑

ADH

Sodium reabsorption ↑

Water follows sodium, Blood pressure ↑

aldosterone

filtration

glomerulus

Reabsorption

Tubule ➜ Blood

Secretion

Blood ➜ Tubule

Acetylcholine

Muscle contraction

CNS

oligodendrocyte

PNS

Schwann cell

Depolarization

Na⁺ enters

Repolarization

K⁺ leaves

Hyperpolarization

Too much K⁺ leaves

B cells

antibodies

plasma cells

antibodies

Memory cells

Secondary response

Cytotoxic T cells - CD8

Kill infected cells

Helper T cells - CD4

Coordinate response

Macrophages

Phagocytosis

MHC I

All nucleated cells

MHC II

APCs

neutrophils

Bacteria

Eosinophils

parasites

Basophils

histamine

mast cells

Histamine

Cell membrane receptor

Examples:

• Insulin

• Glucagon

• ADH

• FSH

• LH

peptide hormones

Intracellular receptor

Examples:

• Cortisol

• Aldosterone

• Estrogen

• Testosterone

steroid hormones

PTH

Calcium ↑

Calcitonin

Calcium ↓

ACTH

Cortisol

Corpus luteum

progesterone

Sertoli cells

sperm production

hCG

pregnancy

Acrosome

egg penetraton

Recessive

skips generation

dominant

every generation