biol 320 lab practical #2

Lymphatic vessel valve

key features, what is happening in each lymph follicle?

Lymph follicles within lymph node- medullary cords and medullary sinus, each lymph follicle is an active center for B cell mitosis

what happens in the germinal centers

Lingual tonsil- germinal centers house proliferating B cells

features?

Palatine tonsil- several lymphoid nodules, stratified squamous epithelium, numerous germinal centers

what is the diagnostic feature? what is this feature’s function? what happens to this gland in adulthood?

Thymus gland- diagnostic feature is the Hassall’s corpuscle= accumulate dead T cells and initiates development of immunocompetent T cells (adulthood thymus degenerates)

what is the function of this organ? red pup function? white pulp?

Spleen- many macrophages and lymphocytes, entraps and destructs old RBC and platelets, red pulp is where RBC destruction takes place, and white pulp is where lymphocytes are concentrated

what is the diagnostic feature for this pathology, what is this feature derived from?

Hodgkin’s granuloma- diagnostic feature is the Reed-Sternberg cell (crippled germinal center B cells- dark larger spots, moth eaten appearance), cancer of lymphatic system, can breakdown splenic red & white pulp

Lip- poorly keratinized and pigmented epithelium allowing circulating blood to show more extensively beneath surface

Taste buds

what are the lung volumes? and definitions

V_t (TV): tidal volume= the volume air expelled in normal resting breath

IRV: Inspiratory reserve volume= volume of air forcefully inhaled after normal tidal inspiration

ERV: expiratory reserve volume= volume of air forcefully exhaled after normal tidal expiration

RV: Residual volume= amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum forced expiration

what is the equation for Inspiratory Capacity ? define

IC= V_t + IRV

maximum amount of air that can be inspired after normal tidal inspiration

what is the equation for Expiratory capacity ? define

EC= V_t + ERV

maximum amount of air that can be expired after normal tidal expiration

What is the equation for Vital capacity ? define

VC= IRV + ERV + V_t

Maximum amount of air that can be expired after maximum inspiration

what is the equation for Functional Residual Capacity/volume? define

FRC= ERV + RV

volume of air remaining in lungs after normal tidal expiration

what is the equation for Total Lung Capacity ? define

TLC= VC + RV

= IRV + ERV + V_t

maximum amount of air contained in the lungs after a maximum inspiration

Hyperbaric oxygen chambers

chamber contain oxygen partial pressure, higher than what we are normally exposed to in the atmosphere and can be used to drive O2 into blood of patient deficient in O2 such as those suffering carbon monoxide poisoning.

Bohr effect

Increasing the partial pressure of CO2 so much that it weaken the hemoglobin-oxygen bond. the releasing of O2 from hemoglobin due to CO2- decrease affinity

Haldene effect

the les hemoglobin is saturated with O2 the more readily it binds to CO2 and can bind to hydrogen ions to buffer CO2 and transport as bicarbonate.

The Bohr effect lead to the Haldene effect… O2 falls off hemoglobin→hemoglobin is less saturated with O2→ CO2 can have room now to bond→the feree hydrogen forms bicarbonate to transport the CO2

hypoxia, classifications/causes?

inadequate oxygen delivery to the body tissues and is classified by cause:

• anemic hypoxia: poor oxygen delivery due to erythrocytes that contain too little or abnormal hemoglobin or from too few erythrocytes

• Ischemic hypoxia: results from blocked or impaired blood circulation

• Histotoxic hypoxia: there is adequate O2 delivery but then body cells are unable to use it (such as the case when metabolic poisons like cyanide are administered)

• hypoxemic hypoxia: indicated when partial pressure of dissolved O2 in the arteriole blood is low and commonly caused by disordered ventilation perfusion coupling

  • ex: carbon monoxide poisoning - breathing smoke from fire or inhaling fumes of combustion

Eupnea? Apnea?

eupnea: clinical term for normal breathing rate= about 15 breaths per minute

apnea: clinical term for breathing cessation

hypercapnia

the clinical term for high carbon dioxide levels in blood.

• slight increase in CO2 is detected by chemoreceptors and will rapidly lead to increase in ventilation

hyperpnea

an increase in breathing rate and depth based on metabolic need (a normal increase)

hyperventilation (involuntary)

increase in breathing rate and depth is not based on bod'y’s metabolic need and exceeds the body’s need to remove CO2. (often caused by anxiety attacks)

hypocapnia

low CO2 levels in blood. Hyperventilation will cause hypocapnia, blowing off excess CO2 and lead to alkalosis (high blood pH, less acidic)

what causes cerebral constriction?

hypocapnia and alkalosis- decreases perfusion and increase ischemia to the brain resulting in dizziness or fainting