Unit 4 - WHAP

Maritime Empires

Empires based on sea travel and overseas colonies; included Portugal, Spain, France, Britain, and the Dutch. Expanded power through naval strength and overseas trade networks.

Caravel

A small, fast Portuguese or Spanish sailing ship developed in the 15th century that made exploration along the Atlantic possible.

Fluyt

Dutch sailing ship designed for trade, not war, allowing for efficient, low-cost long-distance shipping.

Astrolabe

Navigational instrument used to determine latitude by measuring the position of the stars; improved navigation during the Age of Exploration.

Lateen Sail

Triangular sail that made it possible to sail against the wind; important innovation for Indian Ocean and Atlantic trade.

Mercantilism

Economic policy where colonies existed to benefit the mother country by exporting more than importing and accumulating gold and silver.

Joint-Stock Companies

Businesses where investors pooled capital to fund exploration and shared profits/losses. Examples: British East India Company, Dutch East India Company.

Columbian Exchange

The global exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Old World and the New World after Columbus’s voyages.

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system where colonists could demand labor from indigenous people in exchange for supposed protection and Christianization.

Hacienda System

Spanish estates in the Americas that used native or slave labor to grow cash crops; became a long-term land-owning and labor structure.

Chattel Slavery

A system where individuals were treated as property to be bought and sold; central to plantation economies in the Americas.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

The forced movement of Africans to the Americas (Middle Passage) to work primarily on plantations, forming a key part of the Triangular Trade.

Triangular Trade

Trade system connecting Europe (goods), Africa (slaves), and the Americas (raw materials); fueled global commerce.

Trading Post Empire

An empire based on small outposts or ports rather than large territories; Portugal used this strategy in the Indian Ocean.

Conquistadors

Spanish conquerors like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro who defeated the Aztec and Inca empires using military technology and alliances.

Creoles

People of European descent born in the Americas; often resented peninsulares and sought political power.

Peninsulares

Spanish-born elites in Latin America who held the highest colonial offices and had more privileges than Creoles.

Indentured Servitude

A labor system where individuals worked for a period in exchange for passage to the New World; common before widespread African slavery.

African Diaspora

The spread of African peoples and culture due to the transatlantic slave trade; influenced language, religion, music, and cuisine in the Americas.

Syncretism

The blending of cultures and religious beliefs; examples include Vodun (West African + Catholicism) and Sikhism (Hinduism + Islam).

Vodun

A syncretic religion from West Africa and Catholicism practiced in Haiti and other parts of the Caribbean.

Plantation Economy

Economic system based on large-scale agricultural production of cash crops (sugar, tobacco, cotton) using slave labor.

Silver Trade

Major global trade network centered around silver mined in the Americas (e.g., Potosí), fueling Asian trade and global commerce.

Mita System (under Spanish rule)

Adapted from Inca labor system; required forced labor from indigenous peoples, especially in silver mines like Potosí.

Ming Dynasty and Trade

The Ming initially embraced maritime exploration (Zheng He), then turned inward and restricted foreign trade to limit European influence.

Tokugawa Shogunate and Isolationism

Japanese government that unified Japan and adopted isolationist policies (Sakoku), limiting foreign influence and trade.

What major technological advancements enabled transoceanic exploration between 1450–1750 CE?

Key innovations included:

• Astrolabe (used to determine latitude by measuring stars)

• Magnetic Compass (Chinese origin, helped navigation)

• Caravel (Portuguese ship with triangular lateen sails for better maneuverability)

• Fluyt (Dutch cargo ship designed for trade)

• Cartography improvements (more accurate maps and portolan charts)

• Knowledge of wind patterns (e.g., trade winds, monsoon winds)

How did the Portuguese lead early European exploration?

• Prince Henry the Navigator established navigation schools.

• Vasco da Gama reached India (1498), establishing trade with the Indian Ocean.

• Portugal controlled key ports like Goa (India) and Malacca (Southeast Asia).

• Created a trading-post empire, focusing on controlling commerce rather than large territories.

What was the Columbian Exchange and what were its effects?

• The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of people, animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
  Effects:

• Europe: Received new crops like potatoes, maize → population growth

• Africa: Increased slavery through Atlantic slave trade

• Americas: Suffered massive population decline due to smallpox and other diseases; introduction of horses, sugarcane plantations, and European settlers

What were joint-stock companies, and why were they significant?

• Companies owned by shareholders who invested in exploration (e.g., British East India Company, Dutch East India Company).

• Spread risk among investors, funded voyages and colonization.

• Led to early capitalism and European economic dominance.

What is mercantilism, and how did it impact colonies?

• Economic policy where colonies existed to benefit the mother country by exporting more than importing.

• Colonies provided raw materials, mother countries manufactured goods.

• Led to exploitation of colonies, accumulation of wealth through silver and trade, and competition between European powers.

How did the Atlantic slave trade function, and what was the Middle Passage?

• Part of the Triangular Trade:

  • Europe → Africa (guns, alcohol)

  • Africa → Americas (Middle Passage—transport of enslaved Africans)

  • Americas → Europe (sugar, tobacco, cotton)

• Middle Passage was brutal: overcrowding, disease, 15–20% death rate.

• Fueled plantation economies in Americas (especially sugar in the Caribbean and Brazil).

What were the major European empires involved in colonization between 1450–1750?

• Spain: Mesoamerica, Andes, Philippines

• Portugal: Brazil, coastal Africa, parts of Asia

• France: Canada, Caribbean

• England: North America, Caribbean

• Netherlands: Indonesia, Caribbean

What was the encomienda system and how did it function?

• Spanish labor system where colonists received land and Native labor in exchange for Christianizing them.

• Led to severe exploitation and decline of indigenous populations.

What was the role of silver in the global economy during this period?

• Spanish mined massive amounts of silver from Potosí (Bolivia) and Zacatecas (Mexico).

• Shipped to Europe and Asia (especially China).

• Silver became the first truly global currency, fueling trade and inflation.

How did maritime empires control their colonies?

• Through viceroys (Spanish colonial governors), royal charters, and militarized ports.

• Used local elites or creoles to enforce control.

• Imposed taxes, monopolies (e.g., Spanish silver, Portuguese spice trade).

What is syncretism, and where did it appear during this period?

• Syncretism = blending of cultures or religions.
  Examples:

• Vodun (blend of West African religion + Christianity in Haiti)

• Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico

• Santería in Cuba

• Jesuit accommodation of Confucian practices in China

What were maroon societies and their significance?

• Communities formed by escaped enslaved Africans in the Americas.

• Preserved African culture, resisted colonial control.

• Example: Palmares in Brazil, Jamaican Maroons

How did indigenous resistance manifest in this period?

• Pueblo Revolt (1680): Native Americans in New Mexico resisted Spanish rule and Christianity.

• Metacom's War (King Philip’s War) in New England: Native resistance to English expansion.

• Mostly suppressed but showed continued opposition to colonization.

What were the effects of European colonization on indigenous populations in the Americas?

• Demographic collapse due to disease and forced labor.

• Displacement and destruction of traditional political and social structures.

• Introduction of Christianity and loss of native religions/languages.

What was the difference between a settler colony and a trading-post empire?

• Settler Colony: Europeans moved to permanently settle and establish communities (e.g., British in North America).

• Trading-Post Empire: Europeans controlled ports and trade routes (e.g., Portuguese in the Indian Ocean) without conquering large territories.

What technologies did Europeans adopt that enabled exploration?

Magnetic compass (China), astrolabe (Greece/Arab world), lateen sail (Arab world).

What were some European innovations that helped exploration?

Shipbuilding (e.g., Portuguese caravel), improved tools, understanding of wind/current patterns.

How did technological diffusion lead to transoceanic exploration?

Classical, Islamic, and Asian knowledge helped Europe innovate and explore globally.

How did the growth of state power inspire European exploration?

Monarchs centralized power and funded voyages to expand their wealth and influence.

How did mercantilism motivate European exploration?

Nations wanted to maximize gold/silver by exporting more than they imported.

What was the role of colonies in mercantilism?

Colonies provided raw materials and a market for the parent country’s exports.

What were joint-stock companies and how did they support exploration?

Businesses funded by private investors; shared risk made exploration more feasible.

How did Portugal create a maritime empire?

Built trading posts (factories), used caravels and gunpowder, explored African coast.

How did Spain create a maritime empire?

Sponsored Columbus; colonized the Americas and the Philippines using tribute and forced labor.

What was French exploration like before 1750?

Sought NW passage to Asia, settled in Canada, focused on fur trade not colonization.

What was early English exploration like?

Roanoke failed; Jamestown (1607) succeeded; also traded in India without dominating Mughals.

How did the Dutch build their maritime empire?

Formed Dutch East India Co. (VOC), dominated Indian Ocean spice trade, settled New Amsterdam.

What was the Columbian Exchange?

Transfer of diseases, plants, animals between Old and New Worlds (not trade, but ecological).

What diseases came from Afro-Eurasia to the Americas?

Smallpox, measles, malaria — led to 90% indigenous population death.

What Afro-Eurasian foods were introduced to the Americas?

Wheat, olives, grapes (Europe); rice, bananas, sugar (Africa/Asia) — improved diets.

What American crops improved Afro-Eurasian nutrition?

Maize and potatoes — led to population growth.

What foods did enslaved Africans bring to the Americas?

Okra and rice — often hidden in hair for survival during capture.

How did the Columbian Exchange promote cash cropping?

Demand for crops like sugar led to plantation farming using coerced labor for export.

What animals were part of the Columbian Exchange?

Pigs, sheep, cattle, horses — transformed agriculture and hunting in the Americas.

How did Japan resist European influence?

Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity, expelled missionaries, isolated from Europe (except Dutch).

What was the Fronde Rebellion?

A 1648–1653 French rebellion against taxation and absolutist rule; crushed by the king.

How did enslaved Africans resist in the Americas?

Formed maroon societies; e.g., Queen Nanny in Jamaica resisted and won freedom.

How did the Asante Empire grow during this period?

Gained wealth and power by trading gold, ivory, and enslaved people with Europeans.

How did trade with Portugal affect the Kingdom of Kongo?

Converted to Christianity; gained wealth and power, then declined from overdependence.

What remained the same in Indian Ocean trade after 1450?

Intra-Asian trade flourished; merchants like the Gujarati grew wealth through continued trade.

What continuities were maintained on the Silk Roads c. 1450–1750?

The Silk Roads remained under the control of Asian land-based empires like the Ming and Qing in China and the Ottoman Empire.

What change occurred in Asian trade due to European involvement?

The Portuguese became a regional shipping service, transporting goods between Asian states and Europe, rather than controlling the trade directly.

What continuities were maintained by Asian peasant and artisan laborers c. 1450–1750?

Peasants and artisans continued to produce goods like cotton (South Asia) and silk (China) as European demand increased.

What was the Atlantic System and its significance?

A new trade network linking the Eastern and Western Hemispheres that greatly increased the movement of goods, labor, and wealth.

What major goods came from the Americas and what was their impact?

Sugarcane and silver; sugar fueled plantation economies, and silver made Spain rich and fulfilled China’s demand for silver.

How was trade in the Atlantic System maintained?

Through European monopoly companies, joint-stock companies, and coerced labor.

What was the Mit’a system and how did Spain adapt it?

A forced labor system originally used by the Inca for public projects; the Spanish adapted it for private gain in silver mining.

What was chattel slavery and how did it differ from earlier forms?

A form of slavery where people were treated as property; it was race-based and hereditary in the Americas, unlike earlier Afro-Eurasian slavery.

How did the transatlantic slave trade impact Africa?

It caused demographic shifts, gender imbalances, and cultural changes like polygyny.

What was indentured servitude?

A labor system where workers were bound for a set number of years in exchange for passage to the Americas, commonly used by the British.

What were the Encomienda and Hacienda systems?

Encomienda: Spanish settlers received labor from Native Americans.
Hacienda: Large estates where indigenous people were forced to work.

How did Christianity change in the Americas (1450–1750)?

Christianity spread through missionary work and syncretized with indigenous and African religions, forming new belief systems like Vodun.

How were Jews treated differently by states in this period?

Spain and Portugal expelled Jews after the Reconquista, while the Ottoman Empire welcomed them.

What was the Casta system?

A Spanish colonial hierarchy based on race and ancestry, with flexibility through wealth and status.

How did the Qing Dynasty manage elite status?

Only Manchus could hold the highest bureaucratic positions, creating a new elite class.

What conflict arose in Russia during power centralization?

Boyars (nobles) resisted Peter the Great's reforms, leading to their loss of power and the end of their rank.