UNIT 2 and 3 Combined

The process where the brain organizes and interprets sensory input to form meaningful experiences.

Perception

Processing that starts with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's interpretation without prior knowledge.

Bottom-Up Processing

Processing guided by prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Selective Attention

Focusing on one thing while ignoring other distractions.

The ability to attend to one voice among many while also detecting personally relevant information such as your name.

Cocktail Party Effect

Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.

Inattentional Blindness

When people don’t notice big changes in their visual environment because their attention is elsewhere.

Change Blindness

Mental frameworks that organize information and guide expectations based on prior knowledge.

Schema

A tendency to perceive stimuli in a certain way based on expectations or context.

Perceptual Set

The psychological approach that emphasizes that we perceive whole patterns rather than separate parts.

Gestalt Psychology

The ability to focus on one object (the figure) while ignoring the background (the ground).

Figure-Ground

Depth cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive distance.

Binocular Depth Cues

The difference in images received by each eye, which the brain uses to judge depth.

Retinal Disparity

The inward turning of the eyes when focusing on a close object.

Convergence

Depth cues available to either eye alone.

Monocular Depth Cues

Objects that are sharper and clearer are perceived as closer, while hazy objects appear farther away.

Relative Clarity

When two objects are the same size, the one that appears smaller is perceived as farther away.

Relative Size

Objects with more detailed textures are perceived as closer, while smoother textures appear farther away.

Texture Gradient

Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance, indicating depth.

Linear Perspective

When one object overlaps another, the one in front is perceived as closer.

Interposition

The tendency to perceive objects as unchanging in size, shape, and color despite changes in perspective or lighting.

Perceptual Constancies

The perception that an object's shape remains the same even when viewed from different angles.

Shape Constancy

The perception that an object's size remains the same even when its distance from the viewer changes.

Size Constancy

The perception that an object's color remains the same under different lighting conditions.

Color Constancy

Perceiving motion when there is none due to visual cues or alternating images.

Apparent Movement

Thinking about one's own thinking processes to improve learning and problem-solving.

Metacognition

Mental skills involved in planning, focusing attention, remembering instructions, and managing multiple tasks.

Executive Functions

The most typical or best example of a category in one's mind.

Prototypes

Interpreting new information in terms of existing schemas.

Assimilation

Changing existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information that doesn't fit.

Accommodation

Thinking that focuses on finding a single best solution to a problem.

Convergent Thinking

Thinking that generates multiple possible solutions or creative ideas for a problem.

Divergent Thinking

The tendency to view an object only in terms of its typical use, limiting problem-solving.

Functional Fixedness

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution to a problem.

Algorithms

Simple thinking strategies or mental shortcuts used to make quick decisions, which do not guarantee accuracy.

Heuristics

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how much it matches a typical example or prototype.

Representativeness Heuristic

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind.

Availability Heuristic

The tendency to use the same strategies for solving problems even when better strategies are available.

Mental Set

The unconscious activation of certain associations that influence perception or behavior.

Priming

The way information is presented, which can affect decisions and judgments.

Framing

The mistaken belief that past random events affect the likelihood of future random events.

Gambler's Fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made, even if it no longer benefits you.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

The phenomenon where retrieving information during practice leads to better long-term memory than simply rereading material.

Testing Effect

The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations.

Intelligence

A general mental ability that underlies performance in a variety of cognitive tasks.

g (General Intelligence)

The theory that people possess different types of intelligence, such as musical, interpersonal, or logical-mathematical.

Multiple Intelligences

A numerical score that compares a person's intelligence to the average score of others their age.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

It’s a measure of how a person thinks and learns compared to the average for their age

Mental Age

The actual age of a person measured in years.

Chronological Age

The process of administering and scoring a test in a consistent, uniform way to establish meaningful scores.

Standardization

How consistent and dependable a test or measurement is.

Reliability

The consistency of test scores when the same test is administered to the same people at different times.

Test-Retest Reliability

The consistency of scores on two halves of a test that are designed to measure the same thing.

Split-Half Reliability

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure.

Validity

The degree to which a test accurately measures a theoretical concept it claims to assess.

Construct Validity

The extent to which a test successfully forecasts future performance or behavior.

Predictive Validity

Tests designed to measure what a person has already learned.

Achievement Tests

Tests designed to measure a person's potential to learn or perform in the future.

Aptitude Tests

The gradual rise in average IQ scores over time across generations.

Flynn Effect

The belief that intelligence and abilities are static and cannot change.

Fixed Mindset

The belief that intelligence and abilities can improve through effort and practice.

Growth Mindset

When awareness of a negative stereotype leads to anxiety and decreased performance.

Stereotype Threat

When awareness of a positive stereotype leads to improved performance.

Stereotype Lift

Developmental Psychology

The study of how people grow and change physically, mentally, and socially across life

Stability and Change

Some traits stay the same while others change over time

Nature and Nurture

Genes vs. environment influences on development

Continuous Development

Gradual, smooth changes over time

Discontinuous Development

People grow in clear stages or steps, rather than slowly and smoothly.

Cross-sectional Research

Comparing different age groups at the same time

Longitudinal Research

Studying the same group over time

Teratogens

Harmful substances that damage a fetus

Milestones

Key skills achieved at certain ages

Prenatal Development

Development before birth (zygote, embryo, fetus)

Maturation

Biological growth process

Reflexes

Inborn automatic responses

Rooting Reflex

Baby turns head to find food when cheek is touched

Critical Period

Time when development must occur

Sensitive Period

Optimal time to learn something

Imprinting

Early bonding with first seen caregiver

Visual Cliff

Test for depth perception in babies

Fine Motor Coordination

Small movements using hands/fingers

Gross Motor Coordination

Large movements using body muscles

Growth Spurt

Rapid increase in height/weight

Puberty

Body becomes capable of reproduction

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive traits (voice, hair)

Menarche

First menstrual period

Spermarche

First sperm production

Menopause

The natural time in a woman’s life when her periods stop permanently and she can no longer get pregnant.

Jean Piaget

Psychologist who studied thinking development

Schemas

Mental frameworks to organize info

Assimilation

Adding info to existing schema

Accommodation

Changing schema to fit new info

Sensorimotor Stage

Learning through senses (0-2)

Object Permanence

Things exist even when unseen

Preoperational Stage

Imagination but no logic (2-7)

Mental Symbols

Using words/images to represent things

Pretend Play

Imaginative role-playing

Conservation

Quantity stays the same despite appearance

Reversibility

Understanding actions can be undone