U.S. Constitution & Government Structure: Bill of Rights, Amendments, and Branches

Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights is the first 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution, and its whole purpose is to protect individual freedoms and limit the power of the federal government. It is a list of rights the government cannot take away from the people.

1st Amendment

Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition

2nd Amendment

Right to bear arms

3rd Amendment

No quartering soldiers in homes

4th Amendment

Freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures

5th Amendment

Rights of the accused: remain silent, no double jeopardy, due process

6th Amendment

Right to a fair, speedy trial and a lawyer

7th Amendment

Right to a jury trial in civil cases

8th Amendment

No cruel or unusual punishment; no excessive bail

9th Amendment

People have rights not listed in the Constitution

10th Amendment

Powers not given to federal government belong to states or people

House of Representatives

Elected by the people of each district

Senate

Elected by the people of each state

Main job of Legislative Branch

Make laws

Other powers of Congress

Declare war, approve budgets, impeach officials

Senate special powers

Confirm presidential appointments, ratify treaties

House special power

Tax bills start here

Who are the members of the Executive Branch?

President, Vice President, Cabinet, executive departments

How are the President and Vice President chosen?

Elected

How are Cabinet members chosen?

Appointed by President, confirmed by Senate

What is the main job of the Executive Branch?

Enforce laws

What are other powers of the Executive Branch?

Command military, make treaties, run federal agencies, sign or veto laws

How justices are chosen

Appointed by President, confirmed by Senate

Main job of Judicial Branch

Interpret laws

Judicial review

Power to decide constitutionality of laws

Legal precedent

Court decisions that guide future cases

House representation

Based on population

Senate representation

Equal (2 per state)

Number of House members

435

Number of Senators

100

House term length

2 years

Senate term length

6 years

How are amendments proposed?

2/3 of Congress

How are amendments approved?

3/4 of states

Why are amendments difficult?

Requires broad national agreement

President

Donald Trump

Vice President

JD Vance

Speaker of the House

Mike Johnson

House Minority Leader

Hakeem Jeffries

Senate Majority Leader

John Thune

Senate Minority Leader

Chuck Schumer

Line of Succession

President:

1. Vice President

2. Speaker of the House

3. President Pro Tempore of the Senate

4. Secretary of State

5. Secretary of the Treasury

6. Secretary of Defense

7. Attorney General

...

What are the two major political parties in the U.S.?

Democratic Party & Republican Party

How many Cabinet departments are there in the U.S. government?

15

What is the Separation of Powers?

Government divided into 3 branches

What are Checks and Balances?

Each branch can limit the others

John Roberts

Chief Justice; appointed by George W. Bush

Clarence Thomas

Associate Justice; appointed by George H.W. Bush

Samuel Alito

Associate Justice; appointed by George W. Bush

Neil Gorsuch

Associate Justice; appointed by Donald Trump

Brett Kavanaugh

Associate Justice; appointed by Donald Trump

Amy Coney Barrett

Associate Justice; appointed by Donald Trump

Sonia Sotomayor

Associate Justice; appointed by Barack Obama

Elena Kagan

Associate Justice; appointed by Barack Obama

Ketanji Brown Jackson

Associate Justice; appointed by Joe Biden

Marbury v. Madison

Year: 1803

Description:

President John Adams was about to leave office. He was a Federalist, and his party was losing power to Thomas Jefferson's group, the Democratic-Republicans. Right before Adams left, he picked Marbury and a bunch of other people to be justices. These were called the "midnight judges" because he signed the papers at the last minute. The Senate said yes to the appointments, and the papers were all set. But when Jefferson took over, his new Secretary of State, James Madison, wouldn't hand over Marbury's official commission—the document that proved he had the job. Marbury got mad and went straight to the Supreme Court, asking them to issue an order to make Madison deliver the paper. He used a law from 1789 that said the Court could do this. But this wasn't just about Marbury—it turned into a big fight about how much power the Court, Congress, and the president each had, especially since the country was split between two rival groups at the time.

Impact:

This case made the Supreme Court an equal branch of government with the power to check Congress and the President.

Vote:

The Court ruled 4-0 in favor of establishing judicial review, although it ultimately denied Marbury his commission.

Plessy v. Ferguson

Year: 1896

Description:

In 1892, Homer Plessy, who was ⅛ black, was asked to participate in a test to see if the railroad people would agree with the challenge of the act. But, when the test ended, he refused to get off the train and was arrested.

Impact:

This decision legalized segregation and allowed Jim Crow laws to spread across the South.

Vote:

The Court ruled 7-1 in favor of Ferguson, upholding segregation.

Brown v. Board of Education

Year: 1954

Description:

African Americans across Kansas, SC, Virginia, Delaware,and Washington D.C were being denied access to public schools because of laws about segregation. Their argument did not work because of the previous Plessy v. Ferguson case, which said that segregation was legal, as long as everyone was equal.

Impact:

This case ended legal school segregation and became a major victory for the Civil Rights Movement.

Vote:

The Court ruled 9-0 in favor of Brown, striking down school segregation.

Schenck v. United States

Year: 1919

Description:

Charles Schenck and Elizabeth Baer were advocating against the US draft, and sent people a letter saying to disobey it peacefully. When they were charged for it, they appealed that the charge violated the freedom of speech.

Impact:

Freedoms or rights (such as the Freedom of Speech) could be limited during wartime as not to put the United States into trouble.

Vote:

The Court ruled 9-0 in favor of the United States, upholding Schenck's conviction.

Mapp v. Ohio

Year: 1961

Description:

Dollree Mapp had materials that she was not supposed to, but they were found when the police illegally entered her home in search of someone who was hiding.

Impact:

This case strengthened Fourth Amendment protections and created the exclusionary rule for states that evidence found unconstitutionally cannot be used.

Vote:

The Court ruled 6-3 in favor of Mapp, applying the exclusionary rule to the states.

Miranda v. Arizona

Year: 1966

Description:

Miranda was questioned about a kidnapping and rape. The police questioned him for hours without telling him his rights, staying silent or asking for a lawyer. The court had to decide if a confession is truly fair when the suspect does not know their rights.

Impact:

This case created the Miranda warning used in every arrest today. Police have to read your rights to you so that you are not forced into anything without knowing.

Vote:

The Court ruled 5-4 in favor of Miranda, requiring police to read suspects their rights.

New York Times v. United States

Year: 1971

Description:

The New York Times Newspaper wanted to publish information about a classified Defense Department study about the history of United States activities in Vietnam. However, the Nixon Administration argued that this was private information not to be shared to protect national security.

Impact:

This case strengthened press freedom and limited government censorship, because the government's side did not have a strong enough argument.

Vote:

The Court ruled 6-3 in favor of the New York Times, rejecting government censorship.

Roe v. Wade

Year: 1973

Description:

The issue was whether a state had the power to ban abortion, or whether a woman could make that decision for herself without government interference.

Impact:

This case legalized abortion nationwide until it was overturned in 2022. Protected a woman's right to choose an abortion under the right to privacy.

Vote:

The Court ruled 7-2 in favor of Roe, protecting abortion access.

District of Columbia v. Heller

Year: 2008

Description:

Heller was a police officer with a one-year lisense for his handgun. He wanted to bring it home, but sued the District of Columbia when they did not allow him too. When the court dissmissed his complaint, he went back with the appeals, saying that it violated his 2nd Ammenment rights.

Impact:

This case reshaped Second Amendment law and expanded individual gun rights.

Vote:

The Court ruled 5-4 in favor of Heller, striking down D.C.'s handgun ban.

Riley v. California

Year: 2014

Description:

Riley was a gang member in California, and he and some others were driving past a rival gang, who were shooting. They took Riley's car and drove away. He was pulled over for his expired driver's listensce, and the punishment was taking the car. When they went to inspect it, they found the shooter's guns, and arrested Riley for having them. Then, when they searched him, they found his cell phone and all the pictures of his gang on it. He was associated with all the things that the other gang did.

Impact:

Police officers need a warrant to search for a cell phone, as they contain a lot of private information.

Vote:

The Court ruled 9-0 in favor of Riley.

Obergefell v. Hodges

Year: 2015

Description:

Although same-sex marriage had been permitted in many states, it was not allowed in others. Many couples had come to complain about this law, feeling it was unfair, and after they had different experiences at different courts, the case came to the Supreme Court.

Impact:

This case guaranteed same-sex marriage equality across the United States.

Vote:

The Court ruled 5-4 in favor of Obergefell, legalizing same‑sex marriage nationwide.

Masterpiece Cakeshop v. Colorado

Year: 2018

Description:

Charlie Craig and David Mullins wanted a cake made for their same- sex wedding, but Masterpiece Cakeshop said that he would not do it because of his religious beliefs. They filed charges against him for discrimination, which was affirmed by the Colorado Civil Rights Commission.

Impact:

This case emphasized that states must remain neutral toward religion when enforcing anti‑discrimination laws.

Vote:

The Court ruled 7-2 in favor of Masterpiece Cakeshop, siding with the baker.

Dobbs v. Jackson

Year: 2022

Description:

Mississippi's law banning almost all abortions after 15 weeks was allowed under the Constitution. The Supreme Court had to decide if states could make laws like this.

Impact:

This case shifted abortion policy to the states and changed reproductive rights nationwide. Vote:

The Court ruled 6-3 in favor of Mississippi's law and 5-4 in favor of overturning Roe.

Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard

Year: 2023

Description:

Students for Fair Admissions argued that race should not be taken into account when considering student applications, but Harvard admitted to doing it.

Impact:

This case eliminated the use of race in college admissions across the country.

Vote:

The Court ruled 6-3 in favor of Students for Fair Admissions, striking down affirmative action.

Learning Resources v. Trump

Year: 2025

Description:

Whether or not President Trump had the power to use the International Emergency Economic Powers Acts to create tariffs on imports.

Impact:

This case limited presidential power in economic emergencies and reinforced Congress's authority over trade.

Vote:

The Court ruled 6-3 in favor of Learning Resources, restricting the President's authority.