Youth and Delinquency Test 2

marriage trends

• declining in general

• age at which it is occurring is increasing

• less time over the course of their lives in this state

divorce rate trends

• declining since 70s

unmarried birthrates

• increasing since 1980s

• decline in 15 to 19 year olds for all races

• order from most to least: native American, Latina, black, pacific islander, white

alternative families

• amount of kids in these is increasing

• types: step family households, single-mother, single father

family structure

whether the child is living in what is commonly thought of as a traditional household or in some other arrangement

family process

interactions; whether the child is attached to their parents or is supervised properly for example

wells and rankin

problems in literature: defining family in biological terms

normative orientation

def: they imply that families that stray from our understanding of the normative family are somehow broken or at a disadvantage while raising children

• strain theory: family structure is important because it may represent a stressful event in a youth’s life, might also represent a loss of coping mechanisms

• social control theory: represents a difference or change in formal and informal controls in the family (some parents are ineffective at supervision)

critical orientation

def: focus less on the link between youth, their personal families, and delinquency and more on the structural and cultural contexts that families must navigate in the United States

• feminist: it isn’t that single mothers are ineffective at parenting; rather, they are disadvantaged by a system that does not value their contributions equally

• critical: how family structure might impact the reaction youth receive for their misbehavior

intact vs. nonintect

research is varied

two parent v. one parent

more correlated with official delinquency than self reported

strong predictor of male more than female delinquency

attachment and delinquency

• linked to likelihood to engage in delinquency

• attachment to mothers is more important

• more important if parent and child are same sex

• only depends on how much the children are attached to the parents (not the other way around)

supervision

• affects likelihood of delinquency

• direct (parent has direct knowledge of what the child is doing and where)

• indirect (parent has met child’s firends)

• social desirability with surveys

family conflict

• separate from discipline

• relationship between this and delinquency

• intermarital conflict (conflict between parents)

• conflict between parents and adolescents

• conflict between siblings

• Juveniles who experience conflict with their parents or are subject to conflict between their parents are more likely to engage in delinquency than those who experience conflict with their siblings

discipline

• described in 2 ways

  • existence of punishment

  • type of discipline (harshness or predictability rather than existence)

  • if a youth experiences harsh discipline/erratic discipline, more likely to engage with delinquency

gender and family

• affects girls more due to stronger attachment to parents

• girls are more monitored than boys

• Fagan: girls have weak connections to their fathers and experience more conflict

• Hay: boys experience more strain and process it differently (girls have guilt)

egalitarian family type

fathers are not part of the households, there is no manifest power imbalance between parents

gender differences in delinquency in single-mother households

strain theory explains this

childhood maltreatment categories

abuse and neglect

physical abuse

kicking, hitting, throwing, burning, stabbing, biting, shaking, or otherwise physically accosting another individual

emotional abuse

constant criticism, rejection, or demeaning of the child

sexual abuse

refers to rape, molestation, and incest. Familial sexual abuse can be perpetrated by a parent, an older or more powerful sibling, another family member, or a legal guardian and can include both encouraging and rewarding inappropriate sexual behavior or the use of threats or force to engage in sexual acts

neglect

deprivation or the failure to provide for a child’s basic needs and can also be specified in three ways

physical neglect

child incurs a physical harm from the deprivation

educational neglect

is characterized by the failure to meet the child’s educational needs, such as neglecting to enroll the child in school or allowing chronic truancy

emotional neglect

refers to ignoring the child’s need for affection or engaging in the abuse of others, such as spousal abuse, in front of the child

trends in maltreatment

children experience the most the younger they are

• most to least: black, latino and white, pacific islander, and asian

• more women than men

parental signs of maltreatment

• little concern for child

• denies existence of child’s problems

• asks teachers or caregivers to use harsh physical discipline if child misbehaves

• sees child as bad, worthless, or burdensome

• demands a level of physical or academic performance child cannot achieve

• looks primarily to child for care, attention, and for emotional needs

signs of maltreatment in child

• sudden changes in behavior or school performance

• not received help for physical or medical problems brought to parent’s attention

• learning problems that aren’t attributed to physical or psychological causes

• watchful

• lacks adult supervision

• overly compliant, passive, withdrawn

• comes to school early, stays, late, won’t go home

signs of maltreatment in parent and child

• rarely touch or look at each other

• entirely negative relationship

• state they don’t like each other

trend in maltreatment and delinquency

exposure to maltreatment increases a child’s risk of committing future delinquent and criminal acts, it is also recognized that many victims overcome early adversities

physical abuse is consistently a predictor of youth violence

instead neglect (measured as being left home alone and unmet basic needs) and sexual abuse were predictors of later violence

maltreatment that occurred early (in childhood) was related to both delinquency and adult crime; they also found that maltreatment that occurred later (in adolescence) was related to delinquency, but it was much less strongly related to adult crime

boys who had been sexually abused were more likely to be probationers for sexual offenses

reason child runs away

family difficulty is the most likely reason that youth run away, and child abuse and sexual abuse are the most prevalent family difficulties linked to running away

boys and girls are equally as likely to run away, girls are more likely to be punished for it

throwaways

youth whose parents have kicked them out of the house (gay people are a big section of this)

trends of incarcerated parents

• most to least: black, latino, white

• Incarcerated mothers are almost five times more likely to have their children end up in foster care than incarcerated fathers

• more likely to exhibit both emotional and behavior problems

• experience a decline in school performance, difficulty sleeping, concentration problems, and truancy and increase in mental problems

foster care impact

more likely to be absent from school, more likely to receive disciplinary referrals, and more likely to perform below grade level

one third of foster youth end up arrested while in care

history of schools

• arose in the shift from an agrarian society to an industry- and service-based economy

• only went to school when their parents could afford to let them go

• Industrial Revolution and the rapid concentration of individuals in urban centers, schools became a place to keep children safe during the day and, some might argue, a place to help mold them into “moral, upstanding citizens.”

math trends

improvement from 1990 to 2019

decrease in 2017 to 2019

biggest jump in black and hispanic

boys are higher

reading trends

improvement from 1992 to 2019

girls are higher

public schools are worse at this and math

school failure relationship with delinquency

• direct

• indirect

• suprious

direct relationship between school failure and delinquency

who fail in school are more likely to engage in delinquency

and

who are delinquent are more likely to fail in school

indirect relationship between school failure and delinquency

impacting a mediating event or experience for juveniles

fail at school —> this lower level of attachment may have them caring less about getting in trouble and risking their education

spurious relationship between school failure and delinquency

3rd variable affecting it

tracking

when juveniles are placed in classrooms or groups within the classroom based on their perceived intellectual abilities, and chances are, to some extent, many of you were tracked while in school—it is a common characteristic of schools in the United States

designed to make teaching more effective

can be hurtful socially (labeling and self-fulfilling prophecy)

relationship between alienation and delinquency

tracking, other school characteristics may impact levels of alienation or school connectedness

Positive classroom management styles, participation in extracurricular activities, tolerant disciplinary policies, and small school sizes have all been found to impact levels of alienation and school connectedness

Juveniles who reported being connected to school were less likely to engage in physical or relational aggression

social class and delinquency

working class were more likely to have deficiencies than were students from the middle or upper class

less time to spend on their schoolwork because they had to be employed to help the family, their parents were less involved in their education, or they did not see the value of an education the way a middle- or upper-class student did

educational system as biased in favor of the middle and upper classes

predictors of dropping out

individual-level characteristics of juvenile and characteristics of the school

individual level characteristics

Students who do not do well academically

Students who have been tracked into the “low” or “slow” academic tracks

Students who have been held back a grade

Students who have issues such as low self-esteem

Students who feel alienated or disconnected from their school experience

Students who have a poor attitude about school

Students who have been previously suspended

Students who have to work a significant number of hours

Students with friends who have also dropped out of school

school characteristics

Structural characteristics, such as the size of the school, the resources available to the school, and whether the school is public or private

Organizational characteristics, such as the rules, practices, and decision-making processes in the school

Climate characteristics, such as the level and type of discipline in the school or the academic emphasis of the school

delinquency and dropping out

linked

linked to drug use

dropping out of school was not the cause of later delinquent behavior but was more likely a spurious connection to delinquency

school bonding

school attachment, school commitment, and teacher attachment

the bond to school impacted delinquency, and then, in turn, delinquency impacted the bond to school (boys impacted by all three bonds, girls only impacted by teacher)

school attachment

emotional connection to the school (not necessarily the teacher)

school commitment

investment in schoolwork and grades

teacher attachment

positive relationship or emotional bond with a teacher

school engagement

School Attachment and behavioral engagement (Involvement in academic and participation in school-based social activities)

types of shootings

Rampage shootings( Member or former member of school (student, former student, employee, former employee) with Symbolic significance to exact revenge or gain power)

Mass murders (Nonmember of school, typically an adult with Symbolic significance, often to gain power)

terrorist attacks (Terrorist attacksIndividuals or groups advancing a political or ideological goal with Politically motivated attack, selected for symbolic importance)

Targeted shootings (Member or former member of school (student, former student, employee, former employee) with Targeting an individual or individuals for some real or perceived slight)

Government shootings( Military or police as a response to student protests or riots)

trends in school shootings

effects younger more than older

more likely to happen off campus than on

bullying

prevalent to victimization and delinquent behavior

repeated nature

aggressive and focused on powerless individuals

can be direct physical attacks or behaviors like slander or social exclusion

homophobic bullying

bullying directed at lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) student

less like to happen in big heterogenous schools with teacher training

sexual harassment

unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal, nonverbal, or physical conduct of a sexual nature by an employee, by another student, or by a third party, that is sufficiently severe, persistent, or pervasive to limit a student’s ability to participate in or benefit from an education program or activity, or to create a hostile or abusive educational environmentcon

consequences of bullying

more anxious, lonely, insecure, and unhappy and have greater difficulty making friends and poorer relationships with classmate

drop in grades

mental health issues

cyberbullying

threatening behavior but occurs over a computer and in cyberspace

Property (e.g., sending a virus-infected file)—Outing of e-mail-entrusted information

Verbal (e.g., using the Internet or mobile phone to insult or threaten)—Masquerading (e.g., deceiving someone by pretending to be someone else)

Nonverbal (e.g., sending threatening or obscene pictures or illustrations)—Spreading gossip by mobile phone, e-mail, or chat

Social (e.g., excluding someone from an online group)—Taking part in voting on a defamatory polling website

can lead to suicidal ideation

school to prison pipeline

set of policies and practices in schools that use overly harsh rules, security enhancements, and punishments that mean for many students, school becomes a preparation ground for prison

Many of these children have learning disabilities or histories of poverty, abuse or neglect, and would benefit from additional educational and counseling service

usually racially disproportionate

zero tolerance policies

1980s-1990s

harsh penalties for weapons or drugs on campus

criminalize childish behavior at worst, and, even when used on behaviors that might be considered delinquent, offer a punishment approach when a rehabilitative approach may be more appropriate

drug-sniffing dogs, hired private security details (overseen by the school), increased the police presence with officers (overseen by the local police departments) patrolling the perimeter of school grounds, and installed metal detectors and surveillance cameras

intolerance is counterproductive because

schools are overreacting

real student problems are often ignored

students are taught the wrong lessons

student misbehavior is likely to get worse with these policies

at-risk students are at greater risk

physical restraint

restricting the ability of a student to move their head, arms, legs, or torso and does not include physically escorting a student, which might include holding them by the hand or arm

usually used on those with an impairment

Tinker v. Des Moines Independent School District (1969)

right to expression needed to be balanced against the school’s need to keep order.

activities cannot be disruptive to learning environment

goss v. lopez 1975

the school was required to establish a formal process in which students had the right to (1) oral or written notice of the suspension, (2) an explanation of the evidence the officials have, and (3) an opportunity to present their side of the story.

ingraham v. wrights

The Supreme Court ruled that this event was not cruel and unusual punishment and that it was within the school’s prerogative to use corporal punishment, although the justices cautioned school administrators to be thoughtful in their use of corporal punishment

new jersey v. TLO

The Supreme Court ruled that while students have a legitimate expectation of privacy, this must be weighed against the school’s need for “maintaining an environment in which learning can take place.”

reasonable suspicion not probable case

vernonia school district v. acton

. The Supreme Court ruled that “students who voluntarily participate in school athletics have reason to expect intrusions upon normal rights and privileges, including privacy.”

Board of Education of Independent School District #92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls (2002)

schools can require drug tests for all students in extracurricular activities

morse v. frederick 2007

Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment does not prevent school administrators from restricting student expression if that expression is viewed as promoting illegal drugs.

safford united school district v. redding 2009

The Supreme Court agreed that the strip search had gone too far, given the evidence that was available at the time and the danger presented by the pills weighed against the degradation that results from a strip search.

Mahanoy Area School District v. B.L. (2021)

her posting to social media (outside of school hours and away from the school’s campus) was not disruptive enough to suspend her from school activities and that the school district had violated her First Amendment rights.

difference between friend group and gang

whether they commit delinquent acts and the label chosen

socialization hypothesis of delinquency

youth who socialize with friends who are highly delinquent will be more apt to be delinquent themselves

opportunity hypothesis of delinquency

the most important factor that influences youth to engage in delinquency is not necessarily having friends who are highly delinquent but is, instead, the amount of time that youth spend with their friends away from parents, teachers, and other social control agents

gender and gangs

when girls have a lot of male friends they engage in delinquent acts more

a boy being friends with a girl decreases their likelihood of delinquency

relational isolation

avoid building close friendships with other girls to avoid having to fight to defend a friends

do not experience same level of rejection which can lead to delinquency

social media

men use youtube more

girls use snapchat more

black people more likely to use facebook

most send messages and interact online often

relationships are made, maintained and broken through online interactions

influenced by messages of normal

increased parental communication

sexting

using cell phone to send or receive sexually suggestive messaging

concern over photographs

boys and girls do this qually

3 scenarios of sexting

two people in a relationship are sexting instead of, or before, sexual interaction;

someone forwards a picture or video sent to them to other people—either to brag about it or to shame a person after a breakup or fight;

an da person who wants to be in a relationship with someone sends them a nude or nearly nude picture as a means of showing interest

routine activities theory and sexting

a willing actor, an available target, and a lack of guardianship around that target

the frequency with which youth use their cell phones and their use of their cell phones during school hours is related to their likelihood of receiving sexts. The probability is mediated by the supervision factors; teens who have cell phones that are part of a family cell phone contract are less likely to get sexts than teens who have prepaid phones or separate contracts

consequences of sexting

child porn laws prosecution

moral panic

girls are treated harsher than boys

queer, YOC, and low income are surveilled more

mediating oneself

using social media to make oneself and one’s acts publicly visible rather than having to get the mainstream media involved to do so

gang

an interstitial group originally formed spontaneously and then integrated through conflict…. The result of this collective behavior is the development of tradition, unreflective internal structure, esprit de corps, solidarity, morale, group awareness, and attachment to a local territory

thrasher

gangs have formed in cities where recent immigrants have settled

the social disorganization of the city affected the low-income people who must live in the areas most affected by social change

gang activity resulted in the course of normal adolescent development, and when a friendship group began having overt conflicts with other groups, a gang developed

will age out

Klien definition of gang

any identifiable group of youngsters who (a) are generally perceived as a distinct aggregation by others in their neighborhood, (b) recognize themselves as a denotable group (almost invariably with a group name), and (c) have been involved in a sufficient number of delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent negative response from neighborhood residents and/or law enforcement agencies

brotherton and barrios def of gang

a group formed largely by youth and adults of a marginalized social class which aims to provide its members with a resistant identity, an opportunity to be individually and collectively empowered, a voice to speak back to and challenge the dominant culture, a refuge from the stresses and strains of barrio or ghetto life and a spiritual enclave within which its own sacred rituals can be generated and practiced.

Hagedorn def of gang

are organizations of the street composed of either (1) the socially excluded or (2) alienated, demoralized, or bigoted elements of a dominant racial, ethnic, or religious group

data with gangs

there were an estimated 30,700 gangs and 850,000 gang members throughout 3,100 jurisdictions nationwide;

gangs were active in a little less than 30% of the responding jurisdictions;

about two thirds of all gangs were located in large and small cities

large turnover

john fagan gang categories

social, party, serious delinquency, organization

social gangs

Use lots of alcohol and marijuana but do not use many other drugs or engage in many acts of delinquency.

party gangs

into drugs use and sales but not other types of delinquency

serious delinquency gangs

Are not heavily involved in drug use and sales but instead commit many other acts of delinquency.

organization gangs

Have a hierarchy that is linked to an adult criminal organization and that has members involved in all sorts of delinquency: drug use and sales, as well as other delinquent acts.

subculture of violence perspective

youth gangs as the result of a formation of a peer group that actively opposes middle-class mainstream norms of nonviolent behavior through the creation of a hypermasculine, aggressive subculture

decide to handle any sort of negative social interaction—someone looking the wrong way at them, insulting them while in their neighborhood or territory, or acting out violently against them or their friends

routine activities and gangs

result of youth having free time on their hands and spending time in a location in which gang activity is an option

Youth must be motivated to participate in violence, people must be deemed to be suitable targets of the violence (i.e., there is someone—likely another member of a rival gang—who is in the vicinity and can be attacked), and there must be a lack of “guardians” or authority figures

Diego vigil’s multiple marginality theory

gang development and involvement of youth in the United States, subcultural factors and opportunity come into play in neighborhoods where gangs emerge, but these occurrences need to be placed in a bigger context

gangs are a way of dealing with stressors

street socialized

When youth bond with others who share a common background and become part of a subcultural group in which they develop and share their own values.

ideas of masculinity

reasons gangs appear on reservations

forced relocation of indigenous people, the creation of boarding schools and attempts to destroy language and cultural ties, the creation of the reservations/reserves system, racial microaggressions and racism against indigenous people, continued assaults on tribal sovereignty, and long-term economic marginalization