Module 1 CAR 1, 2, 8

Name the sub-regions of the Caribbean and give examples of territories in each.

• Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (Haiti & Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico

• Lesser Antilles: Leeward Islands (Antigua & Barbuda, St. Kitts & Nevis, Guadeloupe, Montserrat) and Windward Islands (Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, Barbados)

• Lucayan Archipelago: Bahamas, Turks & Caicos

• ABC Islands: Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao

• Continental Caribbean: Belize, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana

How is the Caribbean positioned relative to surrounding bodies of water and land masses?

• North/East: Atlantic Ocean

• West: Central America; Gulf of Mexico to the northwest

• South: Venezuela and Colombia (South America)

• The island arc stretches ~4,000 km from the Florida Straits to the Gulf of Paria (near Trinidad)

What is the geographical definition of the Caribbean? Give one advantage and one disadvantage.

• Definition: Territories physically located on or near the Caribbean Sea

• Advantage: Clear, objective, easy to apply for mapping and policy

• Disadvantage: Excludes Guyana, Belize, Suriname — territories that are deeply Caribbean culturally and historically

What is the geological definition of the Caribbean? Give one advantage and one disadvantage.

• Definition: Based on the Caribbean Plate; islands formed by volcanic/tectonic activity or coral/limestone formation

• Advantage: Useful for disaster management and environmental cooperation

• Disadvantage: Socially irrelevant; Barbados and Cuba have different geological origins yet are both undeniably Caribbean

What is the historical definition of the Caribbean? Give one advantage and one disadvantage.

• Definition: Territories sharing a common colonial history — indigenous occupation, European conquest, slavery, indentureship, and plantation agriculture

• Advantage: Most inclusive; explains contemporary social structures; embraces Belize and Guyana

• Disadvantage: Can be overly broad (overlaps with Latin America); risks reducing identity purely to oppression

What is the political definition of the Caribbean? Give one advantage and one disadvantage.

• Definition: Territories grouped by membership in political institutions such as CARICOM, CARIFORUM, or the ACS

• Advantage: Practical for governance, trade, and diplomacy

• Disadvantage: Excludes French DOMs (Martinique, Guadeloupe) which are politically French but culturally Caribbean; inclusion is often strategic, not cultural

What is the diasporic definition of the Caribbean? Give one advantage and one disadvantage.

• Definition: Caribbean identity as a cultural and social reality dispersed globally — communities in London, New York, Toronto, Panama, Amsterdam

• Advantage: Most culturally expansive; acknowledges transnational identity (Stuart Hall, Paul Gilroy)

• Disadvantage: Potentially limitless; difficult to apply to policy or census; later generations may not identify as Caribbean

Who were the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean and where did they originate?

• Taíno/Arawak: Migrated northward from the Orinoco basin (Venezuela); settled the Greater Antilles and Bahamas (~300 BCE–500 CE)

• Kalinago (Island Caribs): Also from South America; settled the Lesser Antilles (~1000–1200 CE); skilled navigators and warriors

What caused the near-extinction of indigenous Caribbean peoples after 1492?

• European diseases (smallpox, measles, typhus) — no prior immunity

• Brutal forced labour under the encomienda system

• Violence and warfare

• Famine caused by destruction of subsistence agriculture

• Example: Taíno population of Hispaniola fell from ~300,000–1,000,000 in 1492 to near extinction by mid-16th century

Describe African migration to the Caribbean under the transatlantic slave trade

• ~12–13 million Africans transported to the Americas over four centuries; ~4–5 million to the Caribbean

• Originated from West and West-Central Africa: Akan, Yoruba, Igbo, Fon, BaKongo, Wolof, Mandé

• Began ~1501 to replace collapsed indigenous labour

• By 1700, enslaved Africans vastly outnumbered Europeans (e.g., Barbados: 50,000 enslaved vs. 15,000 whites)

Name three major destinations of Caribbean migration between 1838 and the present day and explain why people migrated there.

• Panama: Construction of Panama Railroad (1850s) and Panama Canal (1880–1914); ~50,000–150,000 Caribbean workers (mainly Jamaican, Barbadian)

• United Kingdom: Post-WWII labour shortage; Windrush generation from 1948; ~500,000 Caribbean-born by 1971; concentrated in London (Brixton), Birmingham, Bristol

• United States: Labour demand; Harlem (post-WWI); New York/Miami (post-WWII); ~1 million Caribbean-born in NYC metro area

What is the encomienda system and what were its consequences? (system of production section)

• Spanish colonial institution (est. 1503) granting colonists (encomenderos) rights over indigenous people's labour and tribute in exchange for supposed Christian instruction and protection

• In practice: brutal forced labour, especially in gold mining

• Consequences: decimated indigenous populations; combined with disease, it caused demographic collapse across the Greater Antilles within decades; replaced by African slavery

Define chattel slavery and explain its role in the Caribbean economy.

(system of production section)

• Enslaved people treated as property (chattel) — could be bought, sold, inherited; no legal rights

• Dominant labour system from mid-17th century to emancipation (British 1834–38; French 1848; Dutch 1863; Cuba 1886)

• Powered the plantation system; Caribbean sugar, coffee, cotton, and indigo enriched European metropoles

• Eric Williams (Capitalism and Slavery, 1944): slave trade profits fuelled the British Industrial Revolution

What was the indentureship system? Who came, and where did they go? (system of production section)

• Post-emancipation labour replacement: workers signed 5-year contracts; supposed right to return home or receive land grants

• Conditions were harsh; described as "a new system of slavery"

• Indians: ~500,000 — mainly to Trinidad (143,000), British Guiana (239,000), Jamaica (36,000) [1838–1917]

• Chinese: ~18,000 to Trinidad, British Guiana, Cuba

• Portuguese (Madeiran): ~30,000 to British Guiana and Trinidad

• Javanese: ~33,000 to Suriname (Dutch)

Describe the key features of the plantation system (system of production section)

• Large landholdings with monoculture (primarily sugar)

• Export-oriented; produced for European markets

• Coercive labour (enslaved, later indentured)

• Absentee European ownership common

• Created rigid racial-social hierarchy: white planters → free coloureds → enslaved Africans

• Dominated Caribbean economy from 17th–19th centuries

• Generated creolisation of culture, language, and society

What is slash and burn agriculture and who used it? (system of production section)

• Indigenous technique (milpa/swidden): forest cleared by cutting and burning; ash fertilises soil; land farmed for 2–3 seasons then left fallow

• Used by Taíno and Kalinago peoples

• Crops: cassava, maize, sweet potato, tobacco, cotton

• Sustainable for small populations; incompatible with European large-scale commercial demands

Name and describe four forms of resistance by enslaved Caribbean people.

• Everyday resistance: Slowdowns, feigned illness, equipment sabotage, arson, poisoning enslavers

• Marronage: Escaped enslaved people formed independent communities (Jamaican Maroons — Nanny, Cudjoe; Suriname Maroons — Saramaka, Ndyuka)

• Armed revolts: Berbice 1763 (Cuffy); Tacky's War 1760 (Jamaica); Bussa's Rebellion 1816 (Barbados); Demerara Revolt 1823; Sam Sharpe's Baptist War 1831–32

• Cultural retention: Preserved African languages, religion, music, and social practices

Why is the Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) historically significant?

• Only successful slave revolution in world history

• Enslaved Africans in Saint-Domingue (France's richest colony) defeated French, Spanish, and British forces

• Established the Republic of Haiti in 1804 — first Black republic in the world

• Leaders: Toussaint L'Ouverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe

• Terrified slaveholding societies across the Americas; directly influenced abolition debates

How did freed people establish peasant communities after emancipation?

• Moved away from plantations to escape dependency

• In Jamaica: Baptist missionaries helped freedpeople purchase land collectively; over 200 free villages by 1840 (e.g., Sligoville)

• In Trinidad & British Guiana: cooperative village schemes to purchase abandoned plantations

• Grew provisions, ground food, livestock for subsistence and local markets

• Created a dual economy: plantation export sector vs. peasant smallholder sector

Outline the five stages of movement toward independence in the Caribbean.

1. Political enfranchisement: Gradual lowering of property/racial restrictions on voting and office-holding

2. Adult (universal) suffrage: Right to vote without qualifications — won in Jamaica & Trinidad (1944), Barbados (1950), Guyana (1953)

3. Internal self-government: Staged transition from Crown Colony → ministerial government → self-government → independence (Jamaica & Trinidad independent 1962; Barbados 1966)

4. Economic enfranchisement: Land reform, nationalisation of industries, formation of national banks; Black Power movement demands

5. Entrepreneurial activities: Shopkeeping, savings societies (sou-sou/partner), friendly societies, credit unions

What is a sou-sou/partner/box hand and what was its historical significance?

• A rotating credit association of African origin: members contribute a fixed sum regularly; each member takes the full "pot" in rotation

• Known as sou-sou (Trinidad), partner (Jamaica), box (Barbados), meeting turn (Eastern Caribbean)

• Allowed capital accumulation outside formal banking systems that excluded Black and poor people

• Funded house-building, business start-ups, and education

• Foundation of Caribbean middle-class formation

What is adult/universal suffrage and why was it significant for the Caribbean?

• The right to vote regardless of property, income, gender, or race

• Before adult suffrage, only a tiny minority of the population could vote — in Barbados in the 1930s, fewer than 5% of the population were registered voters

• Adult suffrage transformed Caribbean politics entirely — mass-based political parties emerged, politicians needed to appeal to working-class and rural populations

• It was the single most democratising event in Caribbean political history after emancipation itself

Who was Norman Manley and how did he contribute to political advancement in Jamaica?

• Norman Washington Manley (1893–1969); renowned lawyer and statesman

• Founded the People's National Party (PNP) in 1938 — the first modern mass political party in Jamaica

• Championed adult suffrage, self-government, and West Indian federation

• Served as Chief Minister of Jamaica (1955–1962)

• Cousin and political rival of Bustamante — together they defined Jamaican political life for decades

• Declared a National Hero of Jamaica

Who was Grantley Adams and what did he achieve in Barbados?

• Sir Grantley Herbert Adams (1898–1971); Barbados's most important pre-independence political figure

• Founded the Barbados Labour Party (BLP) in 1938

• Led the fight for adult suffrage (1950) and trade union rights in Barbados

• Became the first and only Prime Minister of the West Indies Federation (1958–1962)

• Barbados's only National Hero; Grantley Adams International Airport named in his honour

• His son, Tom Adams, later became Prime Minister of independent Barbados

Who was Cheddi Jagan and what was significant about Guyana's path to self-government?

• Dr. Cheddi Jagan (1918–1997); Indo-Guyanese politician and dentist

• Founded the People's Progressive Party (PPP) in 1950 with Forbes Burnham

• Won Guyana's first election under adult suffrage (1953) — Britain suspended the constitution within months, fearing his Marxist leanings (Cold War context)

• This intervention delayed Guyanese self-government significantly

• Guyana eventually gained independence in 1966 under Forbes Burnham's People's National Congress (PNC)

• Jagan later became President of Guyana (1992–1997)

Why was political independence considered incomplete without economic enfranchisement?

• At independence, the plantation structure remained largely intact — land still concentrated in the hands of a white/light-skinned elite and foreign companies

• Export economies still dependent on former colonial powers for trade, pricing, and capital

• Local populations gained the vote but had little control over natural resources, major industries, or financial systems

• This neo-colonial reality led scholars like Walter Rodney (How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, 1972) to argue that political freedom without economic freedom was meaningless

What specific measures were taken to achieve economic enfranchisement across the Caribbean?

• Land reform: Breaking up plantation estates for redistribution to smallholders (e.g., Jamaica's Land Authority programmes)

• Nationalisation: Guyana nationalised bauxite (1971) and sugar (1976) under Forbes Burnham; Trinidad nationalised its oil sector through the establishment of Trintoc and Petrotrin

• National banks: Formation of central banks and development banks to direct credit locally

• CARICOM (1973) and the CSME (Caribbean Single Market and Economy) — regional economic integration to increase collective bargaining power

• Caribbean Development Bank (est. 1970) — regional institution funding development projects

How did shopkeeping contribute to economic enfranchisement in the Caribbean?

• After emancipation, small retail businesses became a primary route to economic independence for freed people and later immigrant communities

• Indian shopkeepers became prominent in Trinidad and Guyana by the late 19th century — using savings from indentureship contracts

• Chinese shopkeepers became ubiquitous across virtually every Caribbean territory, often dominating the retail grocery sector

• Syrian/Lebanese merchants established dry goods and textile businesses

• These groups accumulated capital outside the plantation system, creating an independent commercial class and challenging the economic monopoly of the white planter elite

What were Friendly Societies and Credit Unions and what role did they play?

• Friendly Societies: Formal mutual aid organisations providing sickness benefits, death/funeral benefits, and small loans to members who paid regular dues; established from the mid-19th century across the Caribbean

• Credit Unions: Member-owned financial cooperatives offering savings accounts and loans at low interest rates — an alternative to commercial banks

• The Caribbean credit union movement grew significantly in the 20th century, championed by the Catholic Church (particularly in Trinidad and Grenada) as a tool of community development

• Both institutions built financial literacy and capital accumulation among working-class Caribbean people who were excluded from mainstream finance

How did all five stages of the independence movement connect to each other?

• Political enfranchisement opened legislatures to non-white voices → enabled the campaign for adult suffrage

• Adult suffrage brought mass-based political parties to power → they pursued internal self-government and independence

• Independence revealed the limits of purely political freedom → demanded economic enfranchisement

• Entrepreneurial activities (sou-sou, shopkeeping, credit unions) built the economic foundation from below while governments worked from above

• Together they represent the Caribbean people's multi-fronted struggle for full freedom — political, economic, and social — across more than a century

What was the Windrush Generation, and why does it matter politically?

Caribbean migrants (mainly Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad) who came to the UK 1948–71 under the British Nationality Act. The 2018 Windrush Scandal — wrongful detention/deportation of legal residents — triggered a political crisis, government inquiry, and reparations.

How did CARICOM diaspora communities influence U.S. politics?

Large Jamaican, Trinidadian, and Guyanese communities in New York and Florida shaped immigration policy debates (TPS designations, Caribbean Basin Initiative). The West Indian Day Parade in Brooklyn is a major political platform courted by U.S. politicians.

What is Notting Hill Carnival and why was it founded?

Founded 1966 by Trinidadian activist Claudia Jones following the 1958 anti-Caribbean race riots in London. Now Europe's largest street festival (~2 million attendees), it influenced British multicultural policy and arts funding.

What is the economic and political significance of Caribana (Toronto)?

Generates over CAD $400 million annually and raises the political visibility of CARICOM diaspora communities in Canadian multicultural and immigration policy debates.

How has Caribbean migrant labour shaped host countries?

Filled post-WWII labour shortages in the UK (NHS, London Transport), Canada (SAWP farm programme since 1966), and USA (H-2A visas). Caribbean workers contributed to trade unions, anti-discrimination legislation, and multicultural education reforms.

What are remittances and how significant are they to CARICOM economies?

Money sent home by diaspora workers. Jamaica receives ~USD $3.8 billion annually (~20% of GDP). Grenada, Belize, and St. Kitts are also heavily dependent. Remittances fund housing, education, and daily consumption.

Where did Rastafari originate and on whose ideas was it based?

Jamaica, 1930s. Rooted in Marcus Garvey's Pan-Africanism and the 1930 coronation of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia, interpreted as the fulfillment of biblical prophecy.

What role did Bob Marley play in spreading Rastafari globally?

His reggae music carried Rastafari theology — resistance to "Babylon," (Which is Western colonial society), African identity, and social justice — to audiences in Africa, Europe, Japan, Australia, and Latin America.

What is "Babylon" in Rastafari theology?

A symbol for oppressive colonial and capitalist systems. The concept resonated with anti-apartheid movements in southern Africa and liberation movements across the Global South.

What legal rights have Rastafari communities won in extra-regional countries?

Courts in several countries have ruled in favour of Rastafari rights to wear dreadlocks in schools and workplaces, and to use cannabis in religious contexts.

What is "brain drain" and how does it affect CARICOM?

Emigration of skilled workers (nurses, teachers, engineers) to the UK, USA, and Canada. Jamaica and Guyana have some of the world's highest tertiary-educated emigration rates, reducing local human capital.

What is the Westminster System and how does it appear in CARICOM?

British parliamentary model inherited by all Anglophone CARICOM states — featuring a Prime Minister as head of government, a bicameral or unicameral parliament, and a Governor-General representing the monarch (until a republic is declared).

What is the Caribbean Court of Justice and why was it created?

Established 2001 to replace the UK's Privy Council as CARICOM's final appellate court. Only Barbados, Guyana, Belize, and Dominica have fully acceded; Jamaica and Trinidad & Tobago have not.

What did Barbados do in 2021 and why was it significant?

Became a republic, removing the British monarch as head of state. Dame Sandra Mason became the country's first President, signaling a broader postcolonial shift in CARICOM.

What is CXC/CSEC and why was it established?

The Caribbean Examinations Council (est. 1972) replaced British O-level exams with regionally designed assessments, introducing Caribbean history, literature, and geography into the formal school curriculum.

How has American Evangelical Christianity affected CARICOM societies?

Since the 1980s, American Pentecostal/evangelical denominations have grown significantly via televangelism and missionaries, shaping social conservatism — particularly influencing political positions on LGBTQ+ issues in Jamaica, Trinidad, and the Eastern Caribbean.

Name two African-derived syncretic religions in CARICOM and their countries of origin

Spiritual Baptism/Shouter Baptism (Trinidad & Tobago — legalized 1951); Kumina and Pocomania (Jamaica); Orisha/Shango (Trinidad). All blend African spiritual traditions with Christianity, surviving through colonial suppression.

How did colonialism shape Caribbean music?

British hymns, brass bands, and European classical training fused with African drumming and vocal traditions to produce calypso, mento, ska, rocksteady, reggae, dancehall, and soca.

Who was Derek Walcott and what was his contribution to Caribbean arts?

Nobel Prize-winning playwright and poet from St. Lucia (Nobel 1992). He synthesized British dramatic tradition with African oral storytelling and carnival to forge a distinct Caribbean theatrical voice.

What is First-Past-the-Post and what criticism does it face in CARICOM?

Inherited British electoral system where the candidate with the most votes wins the seat. Criticized for producing majority governments with minority vote shares — proportional representation debates continue in Trinidad & Tobago and Guyana.

What is the cultural significance of West Indies cricket to CARICOM?

A vehicle for regional identity and anti-colonial pride. The 1970s–80s World Cup-winning West Indies teams under Clive Lloyd and Viv Richards symbolized Caribbean self-assertion and postcolonial confidence.

Why has West Indies cricket declined since the 1990s?

Partly due to competition from American basketball (NBA) culture and European football leagues, drawing athletic talent and youth attention away from cricket.

What is Jamaica's global contribution to track and field?

Jamaica dominates world sprinting — Usain Bolt (8 Olympic golds), Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce, Elaine Thompson-Herah. The Inter-Secondary Schools Boys and Girls Championships (Champs) is the world's largest high school track meet.

Name two other CARICOM countries with world-class track and field athletes

Trinidad & Tobago (Ato Boldon, Keshorn Walcott — Olympic javelin gold 2012) and Grenada (Kirani James — Olympic 400m gold 2012).

What role did Hinduism and Islam play in shaping CARICOM's religious landscape?

Brought by Indian indentured labourers after 1838. Trinidad & Tobago is ~20% Hindu and ~6% Muslim; Guyana has a large Hindu population — adding a non-colonial, non-African religious dimension distinct from most other CARICOM nations.

How has the information age affected education and culture in CARICOM?

U.S. and UK universities dominate online learning platforms; social media (TikTok, Instagram, YouTube) reshapes language use, values, and career aspirations of Caribbean youth, accelerating Americanization of regional culture.