Psych 1 First Midterm

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

behaviorism

doesn't matter what you think/feel, only what you do

consciousness

what you lose when you fall into a deep sleep and what you gain when you wake up

WEIRD samples

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic samples

confirmation bias

a tendency to seek out, pay attention to, and believe only evidence that supports what we're confident we know

pseudoscience

A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly thought to be based on valid science

animal magnetism

a force that Mesmer believed flowed within the body and, when impeded, resulted in disease

evidence

the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

empirical

Based on absolute ovservation and accurate measurement (fMRI, questionnaires)

pop psychology

Social media, websites, magazines, TV shows, simplistic self-help books, etc. that are often inaccurate but accepted by the public

homeopathy

treatment of diseases by tiny does of natural substances (poison ivy, arsenic, rebirthing therapy)

cognitive perspective

The psychological perspective that studies the mental processes that underlie perception, thought, learning, memory, language, and creativity.

emotional perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how the human capacity to feel, express, and perceive emotions plays an important role in decision making, behavior, and social relationships

unconscious

The part of our mental life that influences our thoughts, feelings, and actions that we cannot directly observe and of which we are unaware

biological-neuroscience perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand the biological underpinnings of how humans think, act, and behave

developmental perspective

the psychological perspective that studies how people change physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally as they age.

personality perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand aspects of human behavior that are relatively stable over time and situation

clinical perspective

The psychological perspective that focuses on the causes and treatments of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving human well-being, daily functioning, and social relationships

positive psychology

The scientific study of the feelings that make people happy, keep then healthy, and help them manage stress; includes the study of important human experiences, such as hope, courage, and creativity

operationalize

Translate the variable we want to assess into a specific measurement

demand characteristics

Responding in a socially desirable way

David Hume's Principle of Association

It is a habit of mind that a constantly conjoined pair of events is seen as causally related.

scientific method

The process of basing one's confidence in an idea on systemic, direct observations of the world, usually by setting up research studies to test ideas.

theory-data cycle

The process of the scientific method, in which scientists collect data that can either confirm or disconfirm a theory

data

A set of empirical observations that scientists have gathered

replication

When a study is conducted more than once on a new sample of participants and obtains the same basic results

variable

Something of interest that varies from person to person or situation to situation (at least 2 measures or values)

measured variable

A variable whose values are simply recorded

manipulated variable

A variable whose values the researcher controls, usually by assigning diff. participants to diff. levels of that value

operational definitions

Specific ways of measuring or manipulating an abstract variable in a particular study

direct observation

Observing. Usually done numerically rather than through interpretation.

descriptive research

A type of study in which researchers measure one variable at a time.

sample

The group who participated in research, and who belong to the larger group (the population of interest) that the researcher is interested in understanding

population of interest

The full set of cases the researcher is interested in

random sampling

A way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias, for example, by dialing random digits on the telephone or pulling names out of a hat. (requires special planning to avoid bias)

naturalistic observation

An observational research method in which psychologists observe the behavior of animals and people in their normal, everyday worlds and environments

observational research

A descriptive research method in which psychologists measure their variable of interest by observing and recording what people are doing

Henry "H.M." Moleison

Case study on a man with 7-minute memory

Case studies don't

generalize a larger population, but can lead to theoretical insights that inspire other research studies

third-variable problem

For a given observed relationship, an additional variable associated with both and providing an alternate explanation (correlational studies all have this)

experimental research

A study in which one variable is manipulated, and the other one is measured.

independent variable

The variable that is being manipulated

dependent variable

The variable that is being measured

random assignment

A procedure used in experimental research in which a random method is used to describe which participats will receive each level of the independent variable

experimental group

In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is present.

control group

In an experiment, a group or condition in which some proposed cause is not present.

double-blind procedure

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

random sampling

A way of choosing a sample of participants for a study in which participants are selected without bias

validity

the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision

construct validity

The specific assessment of how accurately the operationalizations used in a study capture the variables of interest

reliability

The degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

external validity

the degree to which a measure yields consistent results each time it is administered

internal validity

The ability of a study to rule out alternate explanations for a relationship between two variables; one of the criteria for supporting a casual claim (easier to verify for experiments than correlational studies)

confound

An alternate explanation for a relationship between two variables; specifically, in an experiment, when two experimental groups accidentally differ on more than just the independent variable. (problem for internal validity)

frequency distribution

A descriptive statistic that takes the form of a bar graph in which the possible scores on a variable are listed on the x-axis and the total # of people who had each score is on the y-axis.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

variability

The extent to which the scores in a batch differ from each other

standard deviation

A variability statistic that calculates how much, on average, a batch of scores varies around its mean.

effect size

A numerical estimate of the strength of the relationship between two variables. It can take the form of a correlation coefficient or, for an experiment, the difference between two group means divided by the standard deviations of the two groups

inferential statistics

A set of procedures used to estimate whether a pattern of results represents a true relationship or difference in the population

statistical significance

A process of inference that applies rules of logic and probability to estimate whether the results obtained in a study's sample are the same in a larger population

null hypothesis

Assumption there is truly no relationship between variables

meta-analysis

A process in which researchers locate all of the studies that have tested the same variables and mathematically averaged them to estimate the effect size of the entire body of studies

HARKing

A questionable research method, aka "hypothesizing after the results are known," creating an after-the-fact hypothesis following an unexpected research result

p-hacking

A family of questionable data analysis techniques, such as adding participants after the results are initially analyzed, looking for outliers, or trying new analyses in order to obtain a p value of just under .05, which can lead to nonreplicable results.

open science

The practice of sharing one's data, hypothesis, and materials freely so others can collaborate, use, and verify the results

preregistration

a researcher's public statement of a study's expected outcome before collecting any data

Institutional Research Board (IRB)

A local panel of researchers, teachers, citizens, and others who determine whether a research study lives up to the community's ethical standards

Ethical Principles for Research with Humans

Autonomy (informed consent, debriefing); ensures protection of vulnerable groups

Beneficience (costs & benefits); Benefits to population

Justice; disproportionately on one segment of the population. The participants who bear the burden of the research should be representative of the people who will benefit from the research

Darwin's key observations

1. Variation

2. Heredity

3. Competition

kindchenschema

A set of facial and bodily features that activate caretaking motivation

naturalistic fallacy

Mistaken belief that because something is a product of naturalistic selection it is inherently "good"

kin selection

the process by which evolution selects for individuals who cooperate with their relatives

direct reciprocity

individuals help each other and both benefit

indirect reciprocity

Helping someone so that others will see you helping them

hypersensitive agent detectors

tendency to contribute something to a cause that may or may not exist

evolutionary perspective

The psychological perspective on behavior that seeks to identify how humans' evolutionary past shapes certain cultural universals that all human beings share, such as the preference for fairness

cultural perspective

The psychological perspective that seeks to understand how cultural context affects people's thoughts and preferences

neuroscience

The study of how nerves and cells send and receive information from the brain, body, and spinal cord

cerebral cortex

The outermost layer of the brain; supports cognitive skills, complex emotions, and complex mental activity, including your sense of mind and self

genes

The basic physical and functional units of heredity; made up of DNA

nervous system

A network of neurons running throughout your brain and your body

nerves

A collection of neurons that carries signals from the bodu to the brain

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

interneuron

a neuron that carries nerve impulses from one neuron to another (connects neurons, interprets, stores, and retrieves information about the world, allowing us to make informed decisions)

spinal cord

The major bundle of nerves, encased in your spine, that connects your body and your brain

central nervous system (CNS)

The system composed of the brain and nervous system; information from your body travels to the brain and by way of the nerves of your spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

A system composed of the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord; connects the parts of the body to the brain

somatic nervous system

division of the PNS that allows us to feel external sensations from and control volitional movement of the body

autonomic nervous system

division of the PNS that allows us to feel internal sensations from and controls automatic movements of the organs, such as the heartbeat

sympathetic nervous system (ANS)

A division of the autonomic nervous system that acts on blood vessels, organs, and glands in ways that prepare the body for action, especially in life-threatening situations

parasympathetic nervous system (ANS)

Returns the body to a resting by counteracting the actions of the sympathetic nervous sustem (attempts relaxation, sex, emotional eating, etc.)

endocrine system

A network of glands that produces and releases hormones into the bloodstream to regulate the body's activities

hormones

The blood-borne chemicals that travel throughout the circulatory system enabling the brain to regulate the body's activities (slower than the nervous system, but longer-lasting)

adrenal glands

The endocrine glands located on the top of the kidneys; they produce a variety of hormones, including adrenaline and cortisol (related to stress response)

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla